An Investigation of the importance of E-Commerce and Internet Essay

An Investigation of the importance of E-Commerce and Internet Marketing - Essay Example This has brought with it several positive impacts such as reduced cost of advertising and convenience in doing business; however, there have been a few negative impacts as well including easier anonymity for criminals and a faster and wider spread of false stories. This report will look at the growth of E-commerce and internet marketing and evaluate their total contribution to the economy as well as the negative impact they have had. Procedure This research employed the use of secondary research method that involves finding of relevant literature related to e-commerce and internet marketing. Therefore, this research involved finding information in scholarly databases and academic libraries, supplemented E-books and online sites that provided relevant and credible data. Secondary research has the distinct advantage of availability of pre-recorded data, which also means a lower cost of doing research. It however bears the risk of data being outdated and finding the data required unavai lable without a means to conduct a study. Findings The US government began tracking internet sales in 1999 when they only accounted for 1% of all sales done within the country. Since then, internet sales have had an astronomical growth with an average rate of 92% annually. Traditional forms of doing business have been overshadowed by online commercial activities. One of the fields that has benefitted immensely from E-commerce is the travel and hotel industry where making reservations and booking travel tickets has been made more convenient. As of 2000, E-commerce was responsible for 24% of all transactions in this industry (Khattree and Rao 2005, p.525). Although used in almost all fields, some industries have experienced an exponential growth in the use of internet marketing and sales. The hotel industry is one of these industries that have experienced a significant growth in use of online marketing with a 70% increase in its application as of 2007 (Harris 2008, p. 35). Success in it heavily depends on an online presence and, E-commerce has contributed significantly to the industries growth and has aided new companies be competitive who otherwise would not have been able to afford the advertising rates of traditional modes of advertising. Internet marketing has been of great benefit to small and medium sized enterprises. As compared to the traditional methods of marketing, internet marketing allows for building of social networks. Online marketing allows for the business to have a personal touch as one can communicate directly with the manager via e-mail (Linton n.d.), this is crucial for the development of these businesses which do not have brand recognition as it wins them customer loyalty which is crucial for them since they cannot have price-wars with their larger competitors. E-commerce has changed the way different industries provide their services one of them being the medical field. The creation of websites such as WebMD has resulted in provision of h ighly specialized services being accessed even in remote areas as well as around the globe. This has resulted in better overall health and has been beneficial to doctors who do not have to travel to remote areas to provide medical care. The use of E-commerce has also meant that retailers get more details

Anxiety Among Alcoholics and Non-Alcoholics Essay Example for Free

Anxiety Among Alcoholics and Non-Alcoholics Essay Abstract Alcohol is one of the most widely used drug substances in the world. For many people, drinking alcohol is nothing more than a pleasant way to relax. People with alcohol use disorders, however, drink to excess, endangering both themselves and others. In the mental health area alcoholism is caused mostly by depression, anxiety and stress, on the other hand it also leads to depression and stress. The present study aims to compare depression and anxiety among alcoholics and non- alcoholics. It was assumed that depression and anxiety may be the risk factors for alcoholism. A sample of 100 people (50 alcoholics and 50 non-alcoholics) was randomly selected from Delhi. Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) and Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI) were used to collect data on depression and anxiety. t-test was administered to compare two groups. The result of the study showed that alcoholic group was higher on depression as well as anxiety than the non alcoholic group, and it was also found that there is no clear cut casual relationship between alcoholism and depression and anxiety. Alcoholism is perhaps most strongly associated with antisocial personality disorder and drug abuse, but its relationship to other forms of psychopathology has become increasingly evident. In particular, investigations of alcoholic samples indicate a strong co-occurrence of alcoholism with diverse form of anxiety and depressive disorder (Barbor et al, 1992; Chambless et al, 1987; Hasegawa 1991; keller 1994; Nunes, Quitkin Berman, 1988; Penick, 1994; Schuckit, Irwin Brown, 1990). ______________________________________________________________________ *Associate professor, Deptt. Of Psychology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh **Research scholar, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. According to Nijhawan (1972) Anxiety, one of the most pervasive psychological phenomenons of the modern era refers to a â€Å"persistent distressing psychological state arising from an inner conflict†. Depression can be defined as â€Å"a state of mind, or more specifically, a mental disorder, characterized by lowering of the individual’s vitality, his mood, his desires, hopes, aspirations and of his self-esteem. It may range from no more than a mild feeling of tiredness and sadness to the most profound state of apathy with complete, psychotic disregard for reality.† (Mendelssohn, 1963). Alcoholism can lead people into serious trouble, and can be physically and mentally destructive. Currently alcohol use is involved in half of all crimes, murders, accidental deaths, and suicides. There are also many health problems associated with alcohol use such as brain damage, cancer, heart disease, diseases of the liver, depression anxiety and other mental disorders. Results from community surveys and epidemiologic samples indicate that substantial comorbidity also exists for depression, anxiety and alcoholism in the general population (Regier et al, 1990; Helzer Pryzbeck, 1988; Kendler et al, 1995). The high co-occurrence of these syndromes, therefore, represents a significant clinical and public health issue that is likely to affect a substantial proportion of the general population. Although the comorbidity of alcoholism with anxiety and depressive disorders has been extensively documented in both clinical and epidemiologic investigations, the specific mechanisms underlying these associations remain a source of debate. One widely accepted hypothesis is that these forms of comorbidity reflect a causal relationship of alcoholism with anxiety and depression. Support for a causal association is based partly on observations that alcohol is commonly used to self- medicate symptoms of negative affect, and so, alcoholism often develops as a secondary diagnosis to anxiety and depression (Meyer Kranzler,1990; Hesselbrock, Meyer Keener,1985; Lader,1972; Merikangas et al,1985). The 18-month follow-up of participants of the Psychiatric Morbidity among Adults Living in Private Households, 2000 survey (Singleton Lewis, 2003) provides an opportunity to determine whether excessive alcohol consumption and abnormal patterns of use are risk factors for incident anxiety and depression in the general population. The study also examined the reverse relationship, considering whether anxiety and depression are risk factors for the development of abnormal patterns of alcohol consumption. However, evidence for a causal relationship is not unidirectional as alcoholism is often observed as a primary disorder, and the presence of problem drinking itself may generate severe anxiety or depressive syndromes (Mendelson Mello, 1979, Nathan, OBrien Lowenstein, 1971; Schuckit, Irwin Smith, 1994; Stockwell, Hodgson Rankin, 1982). Heavy alcohol consumption has been implicated in the development of anxiety and depression (Schuckit, 1983). Many cross-sectional studies have identified considerable comorbidity between anxiety and depression, and alcohol abuse. For example, data from four large community based epidemiological studies (n422 000) in Europe and the USA consistently demonstrated a two- to threefold increase in the lifetime prevalence of anxiety and depression in those with DSM–III or DSM–III–R alcohol abuse or dependence (Swendsen et al, 1998). If anxiety disorders and alcoholism are casually related, there should be a high rate of alcoholism among patients being treated for anxiety disorders. Two studies (Torgersen, 1986; Cloninger et al, 1981) of the prevalence of alcoholism in patients being treated for anxiety neurosis were identified. These investigations suggest a lifetime population prevalence of alcohol abuse/dependence of approximately 14%. The survey of the relevant literature made it quite obvious that much of the studies show a prevalence of depression and anxiety among alcoholics. However, previous studies have also pointed out the possibility of alcoholism as risk factors for depression and anxiety. At the same time, literature does not provide any clear cut direction towards the casual relationship between alcoholism and depression and anxiety. Thus, despite the strong association of alcoholism with anxiety and depressive disorders, no universal consensus has been reached regarding the specific mechanisms underlying these associations. The present study aims to identify depression and anxiety among alcoholic and non-alcoholic peoples. Method: Sample: sample of the present study consisted of 100 subjects (50 alcoholics and 50 non alcoholics). The alcoholics were identified through survey from different living areas (including rural, urban and semi-urban) of Delhi and 50 alcoholics were randomly selected for the study. In the same way the non-alcoholic subjects were also selected randomly from different parts of Delhi. The age range of the subjects was between 25 to 50 years. Tools: â€Å"Beck Depression Inventory† BDI -2nd was designed by Beck, Steer Brown (1996). This self report scale has shown to document levels of depression. BDI -2nd edition contains 21 items, each answer being scored on a scale value of 0 to 3. The cut offs used are 0-13 Minimal depression; 14-19 Mild depression; 20-28 Moderate depression; and 29-63 Severe Depression. Higher total scorer indicates more severe depression symptoms. â€Å"Beck Anxiety Inventory† was designed Beck, Epstein, Brown, Steer (1988). This self report scale has shown to document levels of Anxiety symptoms in a valid and consistent manner. BAI contains 21 items each answer being scored on a scale value of 0 to 3. Each symptom item has four possible answer choices: not at all (assigned value =o); Mildly (it did not bother me much) (assigned value=1); Moderately (it was unpleasant but I could stand it) (assigned value =2); and Severely (I could barely stand it) (assigned value =3). The values for each item are summed together to yield an overall or score for all 21 symptoms that can range between 0 and 63 points. A total score of 0-7 is interpreted as a minimal level of Anxiety, 8-15 as ‘mild’, 16-25 as ‘moderate’ and 26-63 as ‘severe’. The BAI is psychometrically sound. Interval consistency ÃŽ ± =.92 to.94, for adults and test-retest (one week interval) reliability is .75. Procedure: The test for depression and anxiety were administered on the subjects individually after establishing the rapport with them. Each and every item was explained to the subject, and then he was asked to respond truly for the item. Thus data was collected for depression and anxiety from alcoholic and non-alcoholic people. t-test was applied to find out the significance of difference between the Mean scores of different groups. Results: TABLE-1 Showing comparison of Mean for depression and anxiety scores between the alcoholics and non-alcoholics Variables| Groups| N| Mean| Std.deviation| t | df| P| depression| Alcoholic Nonalcoholic| 50 50| 35.7600 17.1000| 10.17913 6.15530| 11.092| 98| .01*| Anxiety| Alcoholicnonalcoholic| 50 50| 38.0800 18.3200| 11.55261 6.18570| 10.662| 98| .01*| *Significant at .01 level of confidence TABLE-1 further shows the results obtained by the comparison of alcoholics and non alcoholic group for depression and anxiety. The obtained results show that the mean depression score (M=35.7600) for alcoholic people is higher than the mean depression score (M=17.1000) for non alcoholic people, and the difference between the two means (t=11.092) is statistically significant at .01 level of confidence. Consequently it reveals the findings that alcoholic people have higher depression than the non-alcoholics. The TABLE-1 also shows the results of the comparison of alcoholic and non-alcoholic people on anxiety. The mean anxiety scores (M=38.0800) of alcoholics is found very much higher than the mean anxiety scores (M=18.3200) of the non-alcoholics and the two means difference (t=10.662) is statistically significant at .01 level of confidence. It indicates that alcoholic people have higher anxiety than the non-alcoholic people. Discussion: The basis of the above results may safely be concluded that the alcoholics are highly depressed and extremely anxious than the non-alcoholic people. However, the high prevalence of these anxiety and depressives’ symptoms does not necessarily mean that these alcoholic individuals will demonstrate the long term course or require the long term treatments associated with DSM-III-R major depressive and anxiety disorders. The temporal nature of the association between Depression Anxiety and alcohol is difficult to determine from studies, which uncertainty arising as to whether alcohol is a risk factor or a form of self –medication. The finding of the present study support the findings of Hartka et al, (1991) that reported a significant correlation between baseline consumption of alcohol and depression at follow-up based on data from eight longitudinal studies. However, in this analysis control of confounders was limited to age, gender and interval between measurements. Overall, our findings are contradictory with those of Wang Patten (2001) who observed no excess morbidity among those who drank daily, those who drank in binges (more than five drinks), those who had more than one drink daily, and among drinkers in general. Alcohol dependence was not considered. Similarly, in a randomly selected community cohort with follow-up at 3 and 7 years, Moscato et al (1997) found no excess incidence of depressive symptoms among those with ‘alcohol problems’ (defined as a DSM–IV diagnosis of alcohol dependence or abuse or drinking more than five drinks a day on one or more occasions per week). It may safely be concluded on the bases of previous literature and result of the present study that there is no clear cut casual relationship between depressive and anxiety disorder and alcoholism. In the similar way our findings of the study show that the alcoholics are more depressive and anxious than the non alcoholics. Though it does not show any clear cut picture either alcohol is risk factor for depression and anxiety or depression and anxiety is a risk factor for alcoholism. References Babor, T., Wolfson, A., Boivin, D., Radouco-Thomas, S., Clark, W. (1992). Alcoholism, culture, and psychopathology: A comparative study of French, French Canadian, and American alcoholics. In: Helzer, J., Canino, G. (eds): Alcoholism in North America, Europe, and Asia. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 182-195. Beck, A.T., Epstein, N., Brown, G., Steer, R.A. (1988). â€Å"An inventory for measuring clinical anxiety: Psychometric Properties, Journal of Consulting and clinical Psychology; 56:893-897 Beck, A.T., Steer, R.A., Brown, B.K. (1996). Beck Depression Inventory 2nd Ed.). San Antonio. Tx; Psychological Corporation. Chambless, D., Cherney, J., Caputo, G., Rheinstein, B. (1987). Anxiety disorders and alcoholism: A study with inpatient alcoholics. J Anxiety Disord; 1:29-40. Cloninger, C.R., Martin, R.L., Clayton, P., Guze, S.B. (1981). A blind follow-up and family study of anxiety neurosis: preliminary analysis of the St Louis 500, in Anxiety: New Research and changing Concepts, Edited by Klein, D.F., Rabkin, J. New York, Raven Press, Hartka, E., Johnstone, B., Leino,V. (1991). A meta-analysis of depressive symptomatology and alcohol consumption over time. British Journal of Addiction; 86: 1283-1298. Hasegawa, K., Mukasa, H., Nakazawa, Y., HK., Nakamura, K. (1991). Primary and secondary depression in alcoholism-clinical features and family history. Drug Alcohol Depend; 27:275-281. Helzer, J., Pryzbeck, T. (1988). The co-occurrence of alcoholism with other psychiatric disorders in the general population and its impact on treatment. J Stud Alcohol; 49:219-224. Hesselbrock, M., Meyer, R., Keener, J. (1985). Psychopathology in hospitalized alcoholics. Arch Gen Psychiatry; 42:1050- 1055. Keller, M. (1994). Dysthymia in clinical practice: Course, outcome and impact on the community. Acta Psychiatr Scand; 383(Suppl):24-34. Kendler, K., Waiters, E., Neale, M., Kessler, R., Heath, A., Eaves, L. The structure of the genetic and environmental risk factors for six major psychiatric disorders in women. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1995; 52:374-383. Lader, M. (1972). The nature of anxiety. Br J Psychiatry; 121: 481-491. Mendelson, J., Mello, N. (1979). Medical progress: Biologic concomitants of alcoholism. N Engl J Med; 301:912-921. Mendelssohn, V.P. (1963). Depression in incyclopedia of mental health. Vol.II, Franklin Walts, Inc. Merikangas, K., Leckman, J., Prusoff, B., Pauls, D., Weissman, M. (1985). Familial transmission of depression and alcoholism. Arch Gen Psychiatry ; 42:367-372. Meyer, R., Kranzler, H. (1990). Alcohol abuse/dependence and co-morbid anxiety and depression. In: Maser J, Cloninger C (eds): Comorbidity of Mood and Anxiety Disorders. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press: 283-292. Moscato, B., Russell, M., Zielezny, M. (1997). Gender differences in the relation between depressive symptoms and alcohol problems: a longitudinal perspective. American Journal of Epidemiology; 146: 966-974. Nathan, P., OBrien, J., Lowenstein, L. (1971). Operant studies of chronic alcoholism: Interaction of alcohol and alcoholics. In: Roach, P., Mclssac, W., Creaven, P. (eds): Biological Aspects of Alcohol. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press;. Nijhawan, H. K. (1972). Anxiety in school children. New Delhi : Wiley Eastern Private Limited. Nunes, E., Quitkin, F., Berman, C. (1988). Panic disorder and depression in female alcoholics. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry; 49:441- 443. Penick, E., Powell, B., Nickel, E., Bingham, S., Riesenmy, K., Read, M. (1994). Comorbidity of lifetime psychiatric disorder among male alcoholic patients. Alcohol Clin Exp Res; 18:1289-1293. Regier, D., Farmer, M., Rae, D., Locke, B., Keith, S., Judd, L. (1990). Comorbidity of mental disorders with alcohol and other drug abuse: Results from the Epidemiologic Catchment Area (ECA) study. JAMA; 264:2511-2518. Schuckit, M. (1983). Alcoholic patients with secondary depression. American Journal of Psychiatry, 140: 711-714. Schuckit, M., Hesselbrock, V. (1994). Alcohol dependence and anxiety disorders: What is the relationship? Am J Psychiatry, 151:1723-1734. Schuckit, M., Irwin, M., Brown, S. (1990) .The history of anxiety symptoms among 171 primary alcoholics. J Stud Alcohol; 51:34-41. Schuckit, M., Irwin, M., Smith, T. (1994). One-year incidence rate of major depression and other psychiatric disorders in 239 alcoholic men. Addiction ; 89:441-445. Schuckit, M., Tipp, J., Bergman, M., Reich, W., Hesselbrock, V., Smith, T. (1997). Comparison of induced and independent major depressive disorder in 2,945 alcoholics. Am J Psychiatry; 154:948-957. Singleton, N. Lewis, G. (2003). Better or Worse: A Longitudinal Study of the Mental Health of Adults Living in Private Households in Great Britain. London: Stationery Office. . Stockwell, T., Hodgson, R., Rankin, H. (1982). Tension reduction and the effects of prolonged alcohol consumption. Br J Addict; 77:65-73. Stockwell, T., Smail, P., Hodgson, R., Canter, S. (1984). Alcohol dependence and phobic anxiety states. II. A retrospective study. Br J Psychiatry; 144:58-63. Swendsen, J., Merikangas, K., Canino,G. (1998). The comorbidity of alcoholism with anxiety and depressive disorders in four geographic communities. Comprehensive Psychiatry; 39:176-184. Torgersen, S. (1986). Childhood and family characteristics in panic and generalized anxiety disorders. Am J Psychiatry; 143:630-632 Wang, J. Patten, S. B. (2001). Alcohol consumption and major depression: findings from a follow-up study. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry; 46: 632-638.

What Really Happened To Roanoke History Essay

What Really Happened To Roanoke History Essay Years before the first major American settlement of Jamestown was established, Sir Walter Raleigh, a European, was sent by Queen Elizabeth I to land on Roanoke Island, in what is now North Carolina. Upon arriving, Raleigh attempted to befriend the natives in order to be able to set up a colony there. Eventually there was another expedition made with a different group of people who would permanently live on this new land we now call America. Many people know this story, and that it ended in the utter disappearance of a large group of settlers. The only clue that the vanished group left was the word CROATOAN carved on a nearby tree (Lois 16). A lot of people think that the settlers all died since no direct ancestry has been traced back to them yet, but most people over look the most plausible possibility; most settlers ended up assimilating to nearby Indian lifestyles and families, leaving their would-be colony behind, and starting new with the native people. The voyage to Roanoke was the last of two main voyages to settle in America. On this voyage, John White, a man who was already familiar with the land, would be the leader. White put together a group of 110 civilians, different from the group of soldiers Raleigh had brought before (Durant 103). The benefit of having civilians settle for this voyage is that they had motivation for survival. The previous expedition had soldiers who were paid to venture into the new land and settle. This new crowd was completely volunteer; their only payment was acreage promised by the Queen (104). Since the families would have land in America, they would have to learn to survive and be self sufficient in the new world. On April 26, 1587, John White led his expedition to Roanoke to start their new life (Fritz, Talbott). After arrival at Roanoke, the settlers there developed an established area for them to live in. It could support them, to an extent. A settler named Edward Stafford led a group of 20 people down to visit the Indians who lived on Croatoan Island (Durant 118). Accompanying them was an Indian that was originally brought back to Europe by previous expeditions (Durant 118). The Croatoans befriended White, even though one of their members had been killed by previous skirmishes. John White and his settlers didnt make friends with all the tribes, though. There had been one tribe, the Roanoacs, whom John White planned to murder in revenge of them killing one of Europes former citizens, George Howe (119). Eventually after being on the island for quite some time, the colonists encouraged White to return to England for provisions. Originally, he argued the idea because he didnt want to abandon his daughter and her newborn child. Eventually he was persuaded and he waited for Fernandez, the pilot of the initial voyage to pick him up aboard the Lion (121). Due to storms, Fernandez arrival was delayed, but on August 27, 1587 John White left the Island of Roanoke along with its settlers, for Europe (123). Little known to White, this would be the last time he would ever see them again. White returned in 1590 to the island of Roanoke to find almost nothing left of the colony. It is said that White and his men could see fire burning through the trees, and, To reassure the colonists that they were a friendly party, they first sounded a trumpet and then spend the night singing English folk tunes and calling out familiar greetings, but no answer came. (Kupperman 130). Karen Kuppermans book titled Roanoke, says that White told the colonists to carve clues to let them know where they had gone, and the word CRO was found on a tree (131). White wasnt surprised because the colonists and him had discussed moving north to a different area by the time he got back. After finding the famed CROATOAN carving, white planned to sail to Croatoan in the spring after spending winter in the West Indies, but storms prevented his return, and White never made it back to find the colonists (133). Many theories are present to what could have happened to these colonists. The one that most resonates with me is that the colonists assimilated with the natives; and there is much evidence to prove this. First off, the colonists had already befriended the Croatoan, the tribe in which the clue they left was based on. It is not unusual to assume that the starving colony would seek help from the local tribe who had lived there since the existence of their people. Upon settling Jamestown, John Smith had published a book talking about the settlement and the area of what is now Virginia, and in it he reports, Indians had told him of people like the settlers, whom Smith took to be the lost colonists (Kupperman 137). Kuppermans book reiterates the legends of colonists intermarrying with the Indians; Local legends in North Carolina maintain that the lost colonists survived and intermarried with the Indians and that their descendants live in the region today (141). When we look at it from a mo re current standpoint, it is easy to see in todays society that mixed race is everywhere. If you look at a Native American descendant of today, you can tell that he is Native American. But when someone is a child of mixed raced parents, some traits can be more dominant than others. Is it not possible that when the white settlers merged with the Indians that their physical traits were more prominent that the whites? This would defend the statement that most of the surviving colonists and their descendants were hard to discover, due to the fact that they merely blended in with the rest of the Indians. By the time America became more settled, the original lost colonists of Roanoke would have been dead. More evidence of survival of the Roanoke settlers is backed up by James Horns article titled Roanokes Lost Colony Found? It speaks of a Powhatan named Machumps who traveled to England and told the English of an Indian tribe forming two story houses made of stone, and they did this after being taught by English who survived the slaughter of Roanoke. On a side note, the slaughter on Roanoke was an attack on the village by local Indians, which led people to believe that the colonists had all perished. According to this article, it could very well be possible that some escaped and survived. John White has a recorded journal entry that he wrote, detailing the request that the colonists made, suggesting that he return to England to update Raleigh on their status and get supplies. In the colonists request they state, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦for the present and speedie supllie of certain our knowen, and apparent lackes, and needs, most requisite and necessarie for the good of usà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦uncessa ntly requested John Whiteà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦in all our behalfes to passà © into Englande. (Quinn, The Roanoke Voyages). This journal entry even more stresses the fact that the colonists supplies were dwindling. Since John White didnt return, the only option for supplies they had was living with the Croatoan. In Lois Miner Hueys book American Archaeology Uncovers the Earliest English Colony, she speaks of a glass trade beadà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦and three brass disks. (20). These items, were no doubt offered as necklaces in exchange for food or other goods (Huey 20). The English could have probably survived for quite some time on bartering trades with the Natives alone. While clues like this and many others are found, no one will know for sure if they used them to trade for food. In the end, the Lost Colony of Roanoke will always be a mystery. I do not believe that in my lifetime they will uncover the certain truth. Judging by the facts that I have read, and the references that I have researched, the only plausible idea is that the colonists assimilated with the Croatoan. The colonists left the carving in the tree to signal to John White that, upon his return, he should look for them there. Also, the Indian immigrant Machumps speaking of English existence within the tribes reinforces the idea. Even from the viewpoint of today, when we look around at how intensely diverse our culture is, it is not hard to believe that back then at the beginning of our America, the English could have started mixing with foreign races. Maybe they mixed because that is the only way they would have survived and kept their bloodline going. Roanoke is the Lost Colony, but I believe the distant relatives of the colonists are among us, today.

Emily Dickinsons Use of Humor and Irony Essay -- Emily Dickinson Poem

Emily Dickinson's Use of Humor and Irony While much of Emily Dickinson's poetry has been described as sad or morose, the poetess did use humor and irony in many of her poems. This essay will address the humor and/ or irony found in five of Dickinson's poems: "Faith" is a Fine Invention, I'm Nobody! Who are you?, Some keep the Sabbath Going to Church and Success Is Counted Sweetest. The attempt will be made to show how Dickinson used humor and / or irony for the dual purposes of comic relief and to stress an idea or conclusion about her life and environment expressed by the poetess in the respective poem. The most humorous or ironic are some of the shorter poems, such as the four lined stanzas of "Faith" is a Fine Invention and Success Is Counted Sweetest. In "Faith"..., Dickinson presents a witty and biting satirical look at Faith and its limitations. While it still amuses readers today, it must be mentioned that this short poem would have had a greater impact and seriousness to an audience from the period Dickinson lived in. Dickinson was raised in a strict Calvinist household and received most of her education in her youth at a boarding school that also followed the American Puritanical tradition she was raised in. In this short, witty piece Dickinson addresses two of the main obsessions of her generation: The pursuit of empirical knowledge through science, faith in an all-knowing, all-powerful Christian god and the debate on which was the more powerful belief. In this poem Dickinson uses humor to ease her position in the debate on to the reader. Dickinson uses her ability to write humourously and ironically (as seen in her suggestion of the use of microscopes) to present a firm, controversial opinion into w... ...ntuate the humor in the juxtaposition of the objects in order not to trivialize her own beliefs, but allows enough humor to enter the description to stamp the poem with the child-like free spiritedness found in ...Nobody.... Again in this poem, the poetess' desire for seclusion and unconventionality is expressed eloquently through a light-handed treatment of the subject matter. In conclusion, it can be stated the examples of Emily Dickinson's work discussed in this essay show the poetess to be highly skilled in the use of humor and irony. The use of these two tools in her poems is to stress a point or idea the poetess is trying to express, rather than being an end in themselves. These two tools allow her to present serious critiques of her society and the place she feels she has been allocated into by masking her concerns in a light-hearted, irreverent tone.

Employment Law Compliance Essay

Our client, Bradley Stonefield, is planning to open a limousine service, Landslide Limousines, in the Austin, Texas area. Mr. Stonefield plans to hire approximately twenty-five people to provide first class transportation to a variety of clientele. Before Mr. Stonefield begins hiring it is imperative that he has an understanding of applicable employment laws. Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 (Title VII) is a well-known and widely used federal anti-discrimination law (LaMance, n. d. ). Title VII make it illegal for employers to discriminate against someone based on their race, religion, national origin or sex (U. S. EEOC, 2014). The Act also made it illegal for employers to retaliate against a person who files a complaint of discrimination or participates in a discrimination investigation (U. S. EEOC, 2014). An employer who violates Title VII may find themselves subjected to a number of legal consequences such as having to pay large sums for damages and being required to readjust the company’s policies (LaMance, n. d. ). To avoid violating Title VII Mr. Stonefield and his managers should treat all employees and applicants equally without regard to any characteristics except job performance (HR Specialist, 2013). The Texas Payday Law covers all business entities in the state of Texas, regardless of size except public employers such as the state or federal government (TWC, 2013). This law gives the Texas Workforce Commission (TWC) the authority to enforce wage laws and investigate wage claims (TWC, 2013). Texas Payday Law covers compensation for services rendered, commissions and bonuses, and certain other fringe benefits according to a written agreement with or policy of the employer (TWC, 2013). The law states that employers must pay employees for all hours worked and these wages must be received by the employee no later than payday (TWC, 2013). If the employer lays off, discharges or fires an employee they must pay all wages owed to that employee within six calendar days of the date of separation (TWC, 2013). If an employee voluntarily quits or retires their final payment of wages is due to them on the payday following the date of separation (TWC, 2013). If an employer violates the Texas Payday Law they may be fined the lesser of the wages claimed or $1,000 (TWC, 2013). To avoid violating this law Mr. Stonefield should make sure that employees are paid for all hours worked and that all wages due are paid to employees on time. The Age Discrimination in Employment Act applies to all employers that employ twenty or more employees (U. S. EEOC, 2008). The Act states that it is â€Å"unlawful to discriminate against a person because of his or her age with respect to any term, condition or privilege of employment, including hiring, firing, promotion, layoff, compensation, benefits, job assignments and training† (U. S. EEOC, 2008). Violating the Age Discrimination in Employment Act can cause the business to incur legal liability and require payment of large monetary judgments (Mayfair, n. d. ). Mr. Stonefield and his managers can avoid violating this Act by never taking a person’s age or proximity to retirement into consideration when making decisions about hiring, firing, pay, benefits or promotions (HR Specialist, 2013). The Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 prohibits an employer from knowingly hire, recruit or refer for pay any person who is unauthorized to work in the United States (Boston University, n. d. ). If an employer violates this law they can be fined from $100 to $1,000 and the fine is not just for the employer but also for each employee working for them illegally (Boston University, n. d. ). There is also the possibility of imprisonment for employers that are deemed to show a pattern of violating this Act (Boston University, n. d. ). To avoid violating the Immigration Reform and Control Act Mr. Stonefield must verify the identity and employment eligibility of each employee he hires. He must complete and retain a complete INS Form I-9 documenting this verification (Boston University, n. d. ). Conclusion It is important that Mr. Stonefield and his management team understand that labor laws were passed in order to provide protection for both employees and employers. That is why the government puts so much emphasis on making sure organizations take them seriously by enforcing the laws with strict consequences for noncompliance. Staying in compliance with these laws is not only important to avoid legal penalties but will also protect the business from gaining a negative public image that can be extremely damaging to their bottom line.

Employment

In legal terms, during the later portion of the nineteenth century, â€Å"at will† termination, whether initiated by employer or employee, came into focus in the United States. Simply because a person desires to disassociate oneself with the business, whatever it is, for whatever reason, whenever one chooses, is fine and acceptable. This doctrine exists because it is presumed to exhibit and respect freedom from contract. It applies to the all of â€Å"U. S† except the state of Montana primarily because of the belief that employee and employer prefers employment relationship to be â€Å"At Will† instead of Job security (NCSC, 2014).In the following pages I offer nothing more than simple facts, plain arguments and common sense; and have no other preliminaries to settle with the reader, other than that he will divest himself of prejudice and prepossession, and suffer his reason and his feelings to determine for themselves; that he will put on, or rather that he will not put off, the true character of a man, and generously enlarge his views beyond the present day-? Thomas Paine, Common Sense† (Paine, 1779), (Grotto, 1995).In other words we can debate claims and notions that employment-at-will is all about exacting a contract of redeem and respect, but, wholeheartedly agree, truthfully, that the optimistic picture of equality and freedom is tainted by the continuing subordination and discrimination imposed primarily by employers. Summarization: Employment – At – Will Doctrine The employment-at-will doctrine avows that, when an employee does not have a written employment contract and the term of employment is of indefinite duration, the employer can terminate the employee for good cause, bad cause, or no cause at all (Mull, 2001).The genesis of this ill-fated relationship began to taking shape when employees started to unionize work efforts and initiatives, albeit for a good cause; employees were at the mercy of employer discr etion. The sass gave employees a voice to dispel wrongful actions perpetrated against them, whether it was wrongful discharge based on race, religion, sex, age, and national origin, certain Federal legislative protections, and Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act was available to defend. (Mull, 2001). Allowable Exceptions to Legally Fire. The recognition of employment as being central to a person's livelihood and well-being, coupled with the fear of being unable to rotate a person's livelihood from unjust termination, led to the development of common-law, or Judicial, exceptions to the employment-at-will doctrine beginning in the late sass. † (Mull, 2001) Much of what was contained in the original employment-at-will doctrine developed exceptions that did not fully materialize until the sass. However, have since become subject to erosive statutory and common-law protections all levied against wrongful discharge actions taken by an employer.In certain instances, the â€Å"at- will† dismissal of an employee by his or her employer is halted. There are three established exceptions widely upheld. The first of these is public- policy exception, under which, wrongful discharge is factual if an employee is terminated because he or she files a workers' compensation claim following a Job related injury, or say the employee is expected to break the law based on an employer's request. These acts infringe upon adopted public policy of the particular state.The first case was held in 1959, in California, involving the International Brotherhood of Teamsters and an employee fired because he refused to perjure testimony under oath, as requested. Courts struggled then and continue so, with the meaning of public policy. Some courts in various states found the term â€Å"public policy' vague. The definition differs; limits may include exclusion to clearly defined statements in the constitution or statues, or â€Å"public policy is defined to allow Judges rights to d etermine it a state's public policy locally or beyond.Secondly, when terms agreeable to an employer and an employee exchange verbal or written in some form to express terms of security or other procedures, it constitutes an implied contract exception. The employer through conversation and planning implied that if certain actions are carried out then you will remain here or etc. A common occurrence in the recent past was courts finding that the contents and representations made in employee handbooks could create an implied contract, absent a clear and express waiver that the guidelines and policies in such did not create contract rights. Mull, 2001) â€Å"The third exception is titled covenant-of-good- and-fair-dealing exception. Rather than narrowly prohibiting terminations based on public policy or an implied contract, this exception-?at its broadest-?reads a event of good faith and fair dealing into every employment relationship. â€Å"(Mull, 2001). A termination may become subj ect to interpretations. An employer's decisions motivated by malice are not permissible; done so in bad faith, and thus subject to answering a charge to show â€Å"Just cause†.By 2001, this exception was only recognized by eleven states. Decision and Reasoning to Limit Liability and Impact Operations. Granted when an employee is â€Å"off duty', on his own time, the doctrine offers protection that disallows termination, for what is perceived as unlawful engagement into activities. But, there is an exception to this ruling as well. It states that an employer can basically dictate what activity lawful is and what is not, when it is reasonable related to employment and responsibilities (NCSC, 2014).Therefore, both John and Ellen committed acts worthy of termination when they violated the statue as defined, John, by posting a rant against an important company customer, and Ellen, when she began a blob that protested the Coo's bonus. Retaliation provides that employees may engage in proper, legal, necessary, or desirable activity without being fired in retaliation by their employer (NCSC, 2014). Neither Jim in his email soliciting support of others to protest a situation involving a perceived injustice, nor the accounting department secretaries physical stance in protest against a perceived injustice have legal grounding for terminations.In defense of the employer, Employment-At-Will Doctrine holds no exception that can prevent the company employing Bill from effecting his termination. Joe, having threatened the company with suit for invasion of his privacy is not protected against wrongful discharge under the common law exception of public-policy. The exception allows effusing to break the law at the request of the employer, Joe instead was disciplined for use of company property, to discredit a customer, albeit from his personal account, he also used company time.Joe received the lesser of what could have resulted in Justifiable termination. On the other hand, the department supervisor is covered under this common law exception of public-policy. To terminate this person the company is poised for legal liability actions. Anna did not choose to participate on a Jury team, she was appointed to do so by the courts. The common law exception f public policy offers Anna protection against termination from employment during her absence for Jury duty; her boss has no choice in the matter except to comply.Position Recommendation; Pros and Cons of Whistle Blower Policy â€Å"Whistle blowing is the terminology that defines the actions of organization employees to bring attention to the wrongdoings happening in the organization. A whistle blowing policy by an organization is a step by the higher level management to keep account of all the happenings in its organization which can possibly cause harm to the organizations. It has become extremely important for large-scale organization to have a whistle blowing policy because it is almost impossibl e for them to be aware of the complete happening at all levels of their organization. (Dolomite, 2012) In any organization it is imperative to have in place a mechanism by which all know negative matters can and will be resolved. The basic mechanics are already established; the organization is Just fine tuning it for ownership. It should be simple, easy to follow, and ably proven highly effective. Ethical Theory supports willingness to get involved or the greater good of the largest population (Halberd & Inguinal, 2012).Based on that greater good recommendation is that: the Chief Executive Officer (CEO) form a roundtable steering group comprised of level one, two, and three management and leadership staff to draft a whistle blower policy that, is concise with clear written instructions easily understood, and ensures not a lengthy process (Halberd & Inguinal, 2012) will develop a training program; help employees accept the process and understand it is not about tattling, but more so, building an organizational inundation where each is holding the other accountable (Halberd & Inguinal, 2012) defines the procedures through which an individual will report; develop strict response times for investigation and resolution (Halberd & Inguinal, 2012) The CEO has the burden to set an environment that invites a high level of integrity, accountability, and transparency. When the drafts have gone through legal for lawful compliance review, the CEO and the steering group should hold information sitting for all employees to introduce the new Whistle Blower Policy as a fresh start for all toward ethical, relational, and success values. Further recommend considerations to create a position that oversees training, compliance, reporting, and resolution.Finally, recommend the CEO become visible and canvas the different areas, inquire to come to know the people, to invite genuine feedback, find out what is going on, where are issues of concerns. The CEO will do well to focus attent ion to follow-through on any issues shared while out among workers, and to stay abreast of actions pursued by the steering group; make certain they are addressed as the policy is developed. Fundamentals and Rationale of a Whistle Blower Policy. There are critical elements that ensure proper follow-through of any claim from a whistler's. Integrity is the key of what is disclosed, to who disclosed, and the method that address the issue presented. This policy is instituted to assist those who choose to question what does not appear correct and in accordance with known practice.The first of three fundamental elements critical to assurance of a Whistle Blower Policy effectiveness provides that, where an individual discloses in good faith, not for malicious or for personal gain, some indiscretion of public interest, they are retorted from factorization, harassment or disciplinary action. Secondly, the issue disclosed will be thoroughly investigated to include interviews of all persons inv olved. Third, every effort is made to protect the identity of the individual making the disclosure. Employment In legal terms, during the later portion of the nineteenth century, â€Å"at will† termination, whether initiated by employer or employee, came into focus in the United States. Simply because a person desires to disassociate oneself with the business, whatever it is, for whatever reason, whenever one chooses, is fine and acceptable. This doctrine exists because it is presumed to exhibit and respect freedom from contract. It applies to the all of â€Å"U. S† except the state of Montana primarily because of the belief that employee and employer prefers employment relationship to be â€Å"At Will† instead of Job security (NCSC, 2014).In the following pages I offer nothing more than simple facts, plain arguments and common sense; and have no other preliminaries to settle with the reader, other than that he will divest himself of prejudice and prepossession, and suffer his reason and his feelings to determine for themselves; that he will put on, or rather that he will not put off, the true character of a man, and generously enlarge his views beyond the present day-? Thomas Paine, Common Sense† (Paine, 1779), (Grotto, 1995).In other words we can debate claims and notions that employment-at-will is all about exacting a contract of redeem and respect, but, wholeheartedly agree, truthfully, that the optimistic picture of equality and freedom is tainted by the continuing subordination and discrimination imposed primarily by employers. Summarization: Employment – At – Will Doctrine The employment-at-will doctrine avows that, when an employee does not have a written employment contract and the term of employment is of indefinite duration, the employer can terminate the employee for good cause, bad cause, or no cause at all (Mull, 2001).The genesis of this ill-fated relationship began to taking shape when employees started to unionize work efforts and initiatives, albeit for a good cause; employees were at the mercy of employer discr etion. The sass gave employees a voice to dispel wrongful actions perpetrated against them, whether it was wrongful discharge based on race, religion, sex, age, and national origin, certain Federal legislative protections, and Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act was available to defend. (Mull, 2001). Allowable Exceptions to Legally Fire. The recognition of employment as being central to a person's livelihood and well-being, coupled with the fear of being unable to rotate a person's livelihood from unjust termination, led to the development of common-law, or Judicial, exceptions to the employment-at-will doctrine beginning in the late sass. † (Mull, 2001) Much of what was contained in the original employment-at-will doctrine developed exceptions that did not fully materialize until the sass. However, have since become subject to erosive statutory and common-law protections all levied against wrongful discharge actions taken by an employer.In certain instances, the â€Å"at- will† dismissal of an employee by his or her employer is halted. There are three established exceptions widely upheld. The first of these is public- policy exception, under which, wrongful discharge is factual if an employee is terminated because he or she files a workers' compensation claim following a Job related injury, or say the employee is expected to break the law based on an employer's request. These acts infringe upon adopted public policy of the particular state.The first case was held in 1959, in California, involving the International Brotherhood of Teamsters and an employee fired because he refused to perjure testimony under oath, as requested. Courts struggled then and continue so, with the meaning of public policy. Some courts in various states found the term â€Å"public policy' vague. The definition differs; limits may include exclusion to clearly defined statements in the constitution or statues, or â€Å"public policy is defined to allow Judges rights to d etermine it a state's public policy locally or beyond.Secondly, when terms agreeable to an employer and an employee exchange verbal or written in some form to express terms of security or other procedures, it constitutes an implied contract exception. The employer through conversation and planning implied that if certain actions are carried out then you will remain here or etc. A common occurrence in the recent past was courts finding that the contents and representations made in employee handbooks could create an implied contract, absent a clear and express waiver that the guidelines and policies in such did not create contract rights. Mull, 2001) â€Å"The third exception is titled covenant-of-good- and-fair-dealing exception. Rather than narrowly prohibiting terminations based on public policy or an implied contract, this exception-?at its broadest-?reads a event of good faith and fair dealing into every employment relationship. â€Å"(Mull, 2001). A termination may become subj ect to interpretations. An employer's decisions motivated by malice are not permissible; done so in bad faith, and thus subject to answering a charge to show â€Å"Just cause†.By 2001, this exception was only recognized by eleven states. Decision and Reasoning to Limit Liability and Impact Operations. Granted when an employee is â€Å"off duty', on his own time, the doctrine offers protection that disallows termination, for what is perceived as unlawful engagement into activities. But, there is an exception to this ruling as well. It states that an employer can basically dictate what activity lawful is and what is not, when it is reasonable related to employment and responsibilities (NCSC, 2014).Therefore, both John and Ellen committed acts worthy of termination when they violated the statue as defined, John, by posting a rant against an important company customer, and Ellen, when she began a blob that protested the Coo's bonus. Retaliation provides that employees may engage in proper, legal, necessary, or desirable activity without being fired in retaliation by their employer (NCSC, 2014). Neither Jim in his email soliciting support of others to protest a situation involving a perceived injustice, nor the accounting department secretaries physical stance in protest against a perceived injustice have legal grounding for terminations.In defense of the employer, Employment-At-Will Doctrine holds no exception that can prevent the company employing Bill from effecting his termination. Joe, having threatened the company with suit for invasion of his privacy is not protected against wrongful discharge under the common law exception of public-policy. The exception allows effusing to break the law at the request of the employer, Joe instead was disciplined for use of company property, to discredit a customer, albeit from his personal account, he also used company time.Joe received the lesser of what could have resulted in Justifiable termination. On the other hand, the department supervisor is covered under this common law exception of public-policy. To terminate this person the company is poised for legal liability actions. Anna did not choose to participate on a Jury team, she was appointed to do so by the courts. The common law exception f public policy offers Anna protection against termination from employment during her absence for Jury duty; her boss has no choice in the matter except to comply.Position Recommendation; Pros and Cons of Whistle Blower Policy â€Å"Whistle blowing is the terminology that defines the actions of organization employees to bring attention to the wrongdoings happening in the organization. A whistle blowing policy by an organization is a step by the higher level management to keep account of all the happenings in its organization which can possibly cause harm to the organizations. It has become extremely important for large-scale organization to have a whistle blowing policy because it is almost impossibl e for them to be aware of the complete happening at all levels of their organization. (Dolomite, 2012) In any organization it is imperative to have in place a mechanism by which all know negative matters can and will be resolved. The basic mechanics are already established; the organization is Just fine tuning it for ownership. It should be simple, easy to follow, and ably proven highly effective. Ethical Theory supports willingness to get involved or the greater good of the largest population (Halberd & Inguinal, 2012).Based on that greater good recommendation is that: the Chief Executive Officer (CEO) form a roundtable steering group comprised of level one, two, and three management and leadership staff to draft a whistle blower policy that, is concise with clear written instructions easily understood, and ensures not a lengthy process (Halberd & Inguinal, 2012) will develop a training program; help employees accept the process and understand it is not about tattling, but more so, building an organizational inundation where each is holding the other accountable (Halberd & Inguinal, 2012) defines the procedures through which an individual will report; develop strict response times for investigation and resolution (Halberd & Inguinal, 2012) The CEO has the burden to set an environment that invites a high level of integrity, accountability, and transparency. When the drafts have gone through legal for lawful compliance review, the CEO and the steering group should hold information sitting for all employees to introduce the new Whistle Blower Policy as a fresh start for all toward ethical, relational, and success values. Further recommend considerations to create a position that oversees training, compliance, reporting, and resolution.Finally, recommend the CEO become visible and canvas the different areas, inquire to come to know the people, to invite genuine feedback, find out what is going on, where are issues of concerns. The CEO will do well to focus attent ion to follow-through on any issues shared while out among workers, and to stay abreast of actions pursued by the steering group; make certain they are addressed as the policy is developed. Fundamentals and Rationale of a Whistle Blower Policy. There are critical elements that ensure proper follow-through of any claim from a whistler's. Integrity is the key of what is disclosed, to who disclosed, and the method that address the issue presented. This policy is instituted to assist those who choose to question what does not appear correct and in accordance with known practice.The first of three fundamental elements critical to assurance of a Whistle Blower Policy effectiveness provides that, where an individual discloses in good faith, not for malicious or for personal gain, some indiscretion of public interest, they are retorted from factorization, harassment or disciplinary action. Secondly, the issue disclosed will be thoroughly investigated to include interviews of all persons inv olved. Third, every effort is made to protect the identity of the individual making the disclosure.

Forestry essays

Clearcutting/Forestry essays Clearcutting is a harvesting method that removes the entire timber stand in an area. This removes all the trees (or all merchantable trees) on the site. Clearcutting is a recognized and commonly practiced method of harvesting and regenerating many valuable southern forest species. Clearcutting has come under close scrutiny by policymakers and the public because of perceptions that clearcutting unacceptably damages the environment. Unfortunately, the term "clearcutting" is used in two different ways, which complicates understanding and resolution of associated issues. The term is used by the general public to describe deliberate forest exploitation. Clearcutting considers only short-term economic gain not the long-term health of the forest or local community. While professional foresters use the term in the context of prudent forest management, one of several methods prescribed to regenerate a mature forest. Clearcutting considers only short-term economic gain not the long-term health of the forest because it has resulted in the loss of employment and the loss of dignified, meaningful work. Clearcutting ensures cheap resources now, but what about the future. This exposes the soil to erosion, water storage capacity is lost, and valuable habitat for wildlife is destroyed, streams or rivers are loaded with sediment, killing fish populations. The disadvantage to professionally-applied clearcutting include: Forest stands are sometimes visually disturbing following clearcut harvesting, but the affect is temporary as regeneration of a new stand soon follows. Depending upon location, visual disturbance can be mitigated by maintaining buffer zones along roads and trails and designing the size and shape of clearcuts and their boundaries to blend with and fit the natural topography of the landscape. Clearcutting can result in the temporary loss of habitat for some wildlife species that have smal l home ranges or that require residual tree...

life is a journy Essay Example

life is a journy Essay Example life is a journy Essay life is a journy Essay Life is like a Journey, the longer you travel the more experience you will gain, some of those experience will be very memorable and will become hard to forget. That memorable moment will pierce into your heart, attached to your brain like a new born attached to his mother. My life Journey Just began, but IVe already made some un forgettable experiences that taught me so much about life and the people around me, shaping me to the person that Im today. One of those moments began when my father a poor lementary school teacher decided that it was time for a change in our familys life. He was tired of seeing other families in luxury while he couldnt afford to buy his family dinner. That day came when my father decided to move to the United States of America in search of a better life or perhaps to chase his American dream. My father left us with my mother, and promised us he will come back to get us after two months. He took 200 dollars in his pocket leaving us with 50 dollars to get by for the next 2 months. Trying to get on 50 dollars for two months isnt easy especially if you have to buy gas every day to sustain heat inside your house. My mother tried her best to use those 50 dollars but failed, it seemed as if the price of very thing has doubled. The money didnt last us 20 days after that I knew we were going to go broke for the next 40 days which seemed as if they were 40 years. I felt useless when I saw my mothers tears drop because she couldnt provide food for us, she could provide anything during dinner time except for some bread and water. We were latterly that broke even our fridge started making growling noises because it was empty with out a single thing in it except for its plastics parts, I guess it was Just like our stomachs empty and shallow. After a couple of days I couldnt stand the situation we were in, it was time for me to man up and become the man of the house I dint want to see my mother cry or my sisters hungry. Many ideas started coming up to my head such as stealing or asking other family members for money, but I couldnt do any of those I felt like I had too uch pride in my self to commit some thing as pitiful as that. I decide to do something else which seem to me as lame as can be, but I didnt have any other choice. I decided to go to the farmers market that was held every Saturday and pick all the unwanted things the farmers threw away. It wasnt a pleasant thing to do and most of the thing I got would disgust an animal if he saw them but again I ahs no choice and I didnt want to relay on anyone else. We want on like that for a life is a journy By Yama-Merrouche

See the instructions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

See the instructions - Essay Example Nowadays, many men want to have a robust body with six packs, but they are looking for products that could give them what they desire. We can find that many ads these days are about bodybuilding and related supplements to enhance it. These ads work to give you the real reasons to buy it as indicated by the Versatile Whey Protein ad that states, ‘All-whey protein powder that mixes up rich and thick like an ice cream milkshake while delivering exceptional quality and value’(GNC 1) . There are many famous brands worthy trust like GNC products. GNC is everywhere; it is a high quality brand and it won’t make devastating stuff and sell it to the people. Proteins, vitamins and diets are what GNC produces. Many of us saw how these companies use logos, ethos and pathos. Sexy and strong men standing with vitalized body that is what most people see in sport magazines and that is a way of pathos. We also see how these ads talk about muscle support and how that is good for you r body. Cheap price on brand new products are also a form of pathos. Whey protein is one of GNC products. In Muscle and Body magazine there is an ad about performance which explains Whey protein. Most ads are dodgy to trust as they give false cause. Muscle and Body magazine uses fallacies to manipulate the reader into buying the performance booster Whey protein product (GNC 1). These adverts attracts the thinking of the reader by narrating about muscle support, easy mixing and the recovery. It does not show only a picture of a muscular man, it shows a famous person. It displays more than one picture of the products and explains how the product works. This marketing is false because there is no way that if we used whey protein we will be muscular and we won’t be famous. The Muscle and Body magazine won’t put you next to any product if you use it like that man in whey protein ad. The adjust wants to convince us by putting that muscular man. Many of us want

Annotated Bibliography-Terence-W8 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Annotated Bibliography-Terence-W8 - Essay Example The elderly perceptions should change as it was the key to the resistance. Peek, S. T., Wouters, E. J., van Hoof, J., Luijkx, K. G., Boeije, H. R., & Vrijhoef, H. J. (2014). Factors influencing acceptance of the technology for aging in place: a systematic review. International journal of medical informatics, 83(4), 235-248. The article is the publication by the pub med. The study tries to examine factors that affect technology acceptance among the older persons in the society. In this regard, it establishes that factors of post implementation of the technology were detrimental to technology adoption. Information concerning the study was available, and the authors propose for further studies to investigate if the factors are interrelated. The literature was not provided, but methods of research were limited to mixed surveys of other studies done by different individuals. The methods of analysis were unique since no study had used them. It is necessary for the factors of implementation of technology to be favorable to the older persons since they acted as inhibitors to technology acceptance. Pub Med published the article. The study observes that social networking sites can improve the quality of life of the senior members as they enhance their communication ability. They can communicate easily with their family members and the young generation that increases their intergenerational communication. Not much information was available regarding the study, and the authors were silent on future research. The literature review was less in depth but offered a good insight for the reader to integrate the study. The methods of analysis were by systematic reviews of the various articles that were common to other studies. It is significant for the seniors to embrace the social networking as it helps bring them closer to the young generation. This is an extensive

Law of express trust Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Law of express trust - Case Study Example It may be either a person or a legal entity; iv) Beneficiary, i.e. the person for whose benefit the trust was created. v) Purpose of the trust, i.e. the trust must have a purpose, which is legally valid. Express Trusts are further broadly classified into i) Living Trust: It is also known as inter vivos trust is made for the advantage of another during the lifetime of settlor. ii) Testamentary trusts: These are created by the will of the settlor. That means, the settlor's property will be converted into trust property only after his death. iii) Revocable Trusts: It is a trust where the setlor has full control over the trust property, and he can change or annul the trust at any time. This is a trust, which is at the whims and fancy of the settlor. iv) Irrevocable Trusts: As the name implies, this is a trust, which cannot be revocable except the consent of the beneficiaries, and trustees. Moreover, the trust does not fizzle out once the purpose of the trust is fulfilled. v) Fixed Trusts: These are those trusts where the trust property will be shared by the beneficiaries as per the calendar fixed by the settlor. In distributing the property, the trustee has no discretion to play. Gartsi de v IRC [1968] AC 553 the Inland Revenue argued that as each beneficiary might be entitled to income from the trust fund, they should each be charged as if they were entitled to the whole of the fund. vi) Discretionary Trusts: They are those trusts where the trustee has absolute power in management, administration and distribution and allocating the shares of the trust property to beneficiaries. This trust offers many tax benefits to the beneficiaries, as no interest is created to them until the property is distributed. Rights of beneficiaries: Under a discretioanry trust, the rights of individual beneficiaries are not clear. In Re Smith [1928] Ch 915 it was held that the trustees had to draw up a "complete list" of beneficiaries, but this principle is changed in McPhail v Doulton [1971] A.C. 424, 451, in case of family trust. Court's Jurisdiction: Schmidt v Rosewood Trust Ltd [2003] UKPC 26, [2003] 3 All ER 76: In this case the court held that 1) The court has inherent jurisdiction to supervise and even intervene in the administration of a trust if necessary. And there is no exception even in discretionary trust. 2) This inherent jurisdiction is the fundamental of law of trust. 3) The right to seek the court's intervention did not depend on entitlement to a fixed and transmissible interest. 3) The court has the discretion to intervene to maintain the balance between the competing interest of beneficiaries, the trustees and the third parties. Gartside v IRC [1968] 1 All ER 121 at 134.Re Manisty's Settlement [1973] 2 All ER 1203 at 1211-1212, Mettoy Pension Trustees Ltd v Evans [1991] 2 All ER 513 at 549. Questions: 1. Transactions made by the trustees in the course of management of trust property: The trustees made the following three transactions: 1. Sale Vintage care for 15,000 during the last year to Crowther's son, 2. Payment of legal management fee of 25,000 to the solicitors firm in which the trustees are partners. 3. Decided to invest from existing deposits in to a) partly

Immigrants In Canadian School Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words

Immigrants In Canadian School - Research Paper Example The research conducted by Ladky and Peterson (2008) has highlighted that there are successful school practices for both formal and informal immigrant parent involvement in their children’s school learning and academic performance, for communicating with immigrant parents and also for learning more about the languages and culture of their students and their families. Their research has suggested that there is a gap between the language of home and school and it remains to be a barrier to successful communication partnership. Parents, teachers, and principals should find ways to utilize mother tongue in ways that can support student’s English learning. Almost all of the interviewed new immigrant parents had very clear expectations that regular homework should be assigned by their child’s teacher as they value homework as means of understanding whether their child is accomplishing the targets in the school days (Ladky and Peterson, 2008, p. 85). In conclusion, the first generation immigrants are relatively less performing whereas the second generation is better performing than the native peers. Canada is a country built on multiculturalism ideology and therefore everyone in Canada has rights to believe in any religious, take pride of it, celebrate events etc, and same is the case with the school as well. Even though there are instances of misunderstanding between parents and teachers, the majority of immigrant parents are highly involved in school events in order to facilitate better communication.

Threat and Risk Assessments Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Threat and Risk Assessments - Essay Example reat essence to establish a universal body that puts into consideration the diversity in agencies, jurisdiction and countries, however, how difficult it is. Strategies such as a universal framework that is flexible in taking care of threats and risk assessment need to be implemented. They have different requirements and can be enhanced through charts and diagrams that are simple to analyze and comprehend. They also use common terminologies that are well defined. This paper, therefore, provides an analysis of logical assessment of intelligence problems through structured analysis and sequentially discusses the significance of using that method basing evidence from well-researched materials and sources. One of the key challenges law enforcement agencies are facing within crime intelligence is the confusion in definition of two terminologies, which include threat assessment and risk assessment (Calder & Watkins, 2007). Shading more light on this will help these agencies understand what threats and risk assessment entails. To beginners, threat assessment involves a cross extermination of the nature and intensity of a particular threat that can cause harm. This extermination further entails identification of the probability of the threat to occur and the extent of harm it is likely to cause in any case it occurs. On the other hand, risk assessment involves taking into consideration that the threat will occur and that the magnitude of the harm it is likely to impose is so large (Calder & Watkins, 2007). Lest one understands the difference between the two, more mistakes and confusion of intelligence assessments of one applying for the other are still expected. The main reason for conducting a threat and risk assessment is to provide decision makers with a tangible reason for the occurrence of undesirable, present and potential events and evidences that the identified event is likely to occur. Additionally, it suggests some of the dangers that may result suppose the

The Branches of Government Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The Branches of Government - Research Paper Example This is inclusive of the president who also cannot function as they please. Other parties in the government also have the right to impose the vote of no confidence on the president. Due to the tendency of many governments to usurp power, analysts argue that if left to run governments, a lot of leaders would end up running countries as private businesses. However, Campbell indicates that in the US the case is totally different (2). The constitutional makers of US divided the government into sections that would specialize in formulating laws, another section that would implement the laws formulated whilst the last the section would see administration of justice in the country. The Congress was mandated to be the law makers in the government whilst the president through the backup from the departments and agencies in the executive arm of the government to put in force the laws put in place. In line to this proposition, it is justified to argue that the president heads the non elected members of the government. It is also vital to note the establishment of the Supreme Court by the judicial authorities (Campbell, 111). This clearly aided in the checking the systems put in place in the government. The states and the citizens also have their administration authorities through the state governmental units present in all states. This is referred to as the governmental units that are legally authorized to operate within their jurisdiction. Of essence, the Executive that comprises of the president, vice president and cabinet members plays the role of ensuring that the daily operations of the country function effectively, such collection of duties, representation of the country in international forums, and safeguarding the country’s security amongst others (Campbell, 25). The Legislature, which comprises of the congress make up laws, and ensures

Immigrants In Canadian School Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words

Immigrants In Canadian School - Research Paper Example The research conducted by Ladky and Peterson (2008) has highlighted that there are successful school practices for both formal and informal immigrant parent involvement in their children’s school learning and academic performance, for communicating with immigrant parents and also for learning more about the languages and culture of their students and their families. Their research has suggested that there is a gap between the language of home and school and it remains to be a barrier to successful communication partnership. Parents, teachers, and principals should find ways to utilize mother tongue in ways that can support student’s English learning. Almost all of the interviewed new immigrant parents had very clear expectations that regular homework should be assigned by their child’s teacher as they value homework as means of understanding whether their child is accomplishing the targets in the school days (Ladky and Peterson, 2008, p. 85). In conclusion, the first generation immigrants are relatively less performing whereas the second generation is better performing than the native peers. Canada is a country built on multiculturalism ideology and therefore everyone in Canada has rights to believe in any religious, take pride of it, celebrate events etc, and same is the case with the school as well. Even though there are instances of misunderstanding between parents and teachers, the majority of immigrant parents are highly involved in school events in order to facilitate better communication.

The Branches of Government Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The Branches of Government - Research Paper Example This is inclusive of the president who also cannot function as they please. Other parties in the government also have the right to impose the vote of no confidence on the president. Due to the tendency of many governments to usurp power, analysts argue that if left to run governments, a lot of leaders would end up running countries as private businesses. However, Campbell indicates that in the US the case is totally different (2). The constitutional makers of US divided the government into sections that would specialize in formulating laws, another section that would implement the laws formulated whilst the last the section would see administration of justice in the country. The Congress was mandated to be the law makers in the government whilst the president through the backup from the departments and agencies in the executive arm of the government to put in force the laws put in place. In line to this proposition, it is justified to argue that the president heads the non elected members of the government. It is also vital to note the establishment of the Supreme Court by the judicial authorities (Campbell, 111). This clearly aided in the checking the systems put in place in the government. The states and the citizens also have their administration authorities through the state governmental units present in all states. This is referred to as the governmental units that are legally authorized to operate within their jurisdiction. Of essence, the Executive that comprises of the president, vice president and cabinet members plays the role of ensuring that the daily operations of the country function effectively, such collection of duties, representation of the country in international forums, and safeguarding the country’s security amongst others (Campbell, 25). The Legislature, which comprises of the congress make up laws, and ensures

Understanding Science through History Essay Example for Free

Understanding Science through History Essay The inquisitive of science and its blend in history is important in understanding the book â€Å"E=mc2: A biography of the World’s Most Famous Equation† written by David Bodanis. It is seen that in order to understand the empirical evidences of a technical concept, it is important to go back to the history of the concept and put this in the context of the events. Thus, it is seen that history plays an important part in understanding science. The book traces the historical events, the same as a biography would do, in order to understand the said formula. It proceeds from the time where this formula is created by Albert Einstein and proceeds to the important events in history which are related to the said formula. In gaining understanding, the author also mentions events such as the Second World War and mentions women such as Cecille Payne and Lise Meitner. Moreover, the author makes use of ordinary examples in order to relate to the birth of the formula. The author slowly made his way into defining the E, M, C, and 2 components of the formula through these examples. The connection of the present and the past is immediately established by the author as he mentions that â€Å"the world of 1905 seems distant to us now, but there were many similarities to life today† (Bodanis 4). It is with much realization that the author wishes to make a connection between what is present in today’s society with that of the past. Moreover, there is the establishment of the foundations of the present to be rested on the past. This is further emphasized by the author where he recognizes the importance of the past to the present. In the words of the author, â€Å"the year 1905 was also when Einstein wrote a series of papers that changed our view of the universe forever† (Bodanis 4). In bringing about this particular information, the author shows that there is always something in the past that led to what is in today. This is especially true for science where there are constant developments that are made in order to enhance the theories and the field of research. This book is definitely a must-read for those who are interested in understanding and gaining further knowledge of the formula. Despite the complexity of the concept, it becomes easier to read because of the relationship to more familiar concepts. Thus, the familiarity makes understanding a better experience in reading the life of a formula. Work Cited Bodanis, David. E=mc2: A Biography of the World’s Most Famous Equation. New York, NY: The Berkley Publishing Group.

Ethical Questions in the Stem Cell Debate

Ethical Questions in the Stem Cell Debate The Stem Cell Debate: Ethical Questions The story for the year 1997 was the sacred. We fear a Promethean blunder. We fear that our own human hubris will violate something sacred in our nature; and we fear that nature will retaliate with disaster. To protect ourselves from a possible Promethean blunder by science, we are tempted to stop further research with the commandment: thou shalt not play God! Then, during 1999, we opened the first few pages on chapter two of the cloning controversy story. I will refer to this chapter as the stem cell debate. The debate has only begun. What is not yet clear is just what needs to be debated. Perhaps nothing. Perhaps everything. What is clear is that the fallout from the cloning explosion is still lighting fires here and there. Whether or not the public will add stem cells to the fuel to make those fires burn hotter remains to be seen. Stem cells have become front page news in Australia, as well as in the United States and other countries. On February 4, 1999, the Australian National Academy of Science issued a position statement. Note the structure of Recommendation 1. Council considers that reproductive cloning to produce human fetuses is unethical and unsafe and should be prohibited.However, human cells derived from cloning techniques, from germ cells should not be precluded from use in approved research activities in cellular and developmental biology Here two things are put together. First, disapproval of reproductive cloning for the purposes of making children. Second, approval of research on human embryonic stem cells, approval even in the face of ethical squeamishness regarding embryo research. If this Australian statement is a barometer, we need to ask: what is the cultural weather forecast? What might be coming? In what follows it will be my task to report on the fast-moving frontier of stem cell research within the field of anthropology, agenda questions raised by science that need to be addressed by systematic theologians and public policy makers. I will ask more questions than I am ready to answer. Yet, I believe that such work invested in trying to formulate the relevant question (die Fragestellung) takes us more than just halfway toward a helpful answer. The Human Embryonic Stem Cell Debate Science, Ethics, and Public Policy Edited by Laurie Zoloth Human embryonic stem cells can divide indefinitely and have the potential to develop into many types of tissue. Research on these cells is essential to one of the most intriguing medical frontiers, regenerative medicine. It also raises a host of difficult ethical issues and has sparked great public interest and controversy. This book offers a foundation for thinking about the many issues involved in human embryonic stem cell research. It considers questions about the nature of human life, the limits of intervention into human cells and tissues, and the meaning of our corporeal existence. The fact that stem cells may be derived from living embryos that are destroyed in the process or from aborted fetuses ties the discussion of stem cell research to the ongoing debates on abortion. In addition to these issues, the essays in the book touch on broader questions such as who should approve controversial research and what constitutes human dignity, respect, and justice. The book contains contributions from the Ethics Advisory Board of the Geron Coroporation; excerpts from expert testimony given before the National Bioethics Advisory Commission, which helped shape recent National Institutes of Health policy; and original analytical essays on the implications of this research. Pros and Cons Debates over the ethics of embryonic blastocysts. Latest Developments The most recent research has shown that there are many options available other than working with embryonic stem cells. Stem cells can be obtained from cord blood or derived by manipulating differentiated cells (i.e. skin cells) to revert them to a pluripotent state. These are alternatives that may help broaden the acceptance of stem cell research. Background In November 1998 the first published research paper reported that stem cells could be taken from human embryos. Subsequent research led to the ability to maintain undifferentiated stem cell lines (pluripotent cells) and techniques for differentiating them into cells specific to various tissues and organs. The debates over the ethics of stem cell research began almost immediately in 1999, despite reports that stem cells cannot grow into complete organisms. In 2000 – 2001, governments worldwide were beginning to draft proposals and guidelines in an effort to control stem cell research and the handling of embryonic tissues, and reach universal policies to prevent â€Å"brain-drains† (emigration of top scientists) between countries. The CIHR (Canadian Institute of Health Sciences) drafted a list of recommendations for stem cell research in 2001. The Clinton administration drafted guidelines for stem cell research in 2000, but Clinton left office prior to them being released. The Bush government has had to deal with the issue throughout his administration. Australia, Germany, UK and other countries have also formulated policies. (Continued from Page 1) Pros The therapeutic cloning. Stem cells provide huge potential for finding treatments and cures to a vast array of diseases including different cancers, diabetes, spinal cord injuries, Alzheimers, MS, Huntingtons, Parkinsons and more. There is endless potential for scientists to learn about human growth and cell development from studying stem cells. Use of adult-derived stem cells, from blood, cord blood, skin and other tissues, known as IPSCs, has been demonstrated to be effective for treating different diseases in animal models. Umbilical-cord-derived stem cells (obtained from the cord blood) have also been isolated and utilized for various experimental treatments. Another option is use of uniparental stem cells. Although these cells lines have some disadvantages or shortcomings compared to embryonic cell lines (they are shorter-lived), there is vast potential if enough money is invested in researching them further, and they are not technically considered individual living beings by pro-life advocates. Cons Use of embryonic stem cells for reasearch involves the destruction of blastocysts formed from laboratory-fertilized human eggs. For those who believe that life begins at conception, the blastocyst is a human life and to destroy it is unacceptable and immoral. This seems to be the only controversial issue standing in the way of stem cell research in North America. Where It Stands In the summer of 2006 President Bush stood his ground on the issue of stem cell research and vetoed a bill passed by the Senate that would have expanded federal funding of embryonic stem cell research. Currently, American federal funding can only go to research on stem cells from existing (already destroyed) embryos. Similarly, in Canada, as of 2002, scientists cannot create or clone embryos for research but must used existing embryos discarded by couples. The UK allows embryonic stem cell cloning. Use of stem cell lines from alternative non-embryonic sources has received more attention in recent years and has already been demonstrated as a successful option for treatment of certain diseases. For example, adult stem cells can be used to replace blood-cell-forming cells killed during chemotherapy in bone marrow transplant patients. Biotech companies such as ACT are researching techniques for cellular reprogramming of adult cells, use of amnionic fluid, or stem cell extraction techniques that do not damage the embryo, that also provide alternatives for obtaining viable stem cell lines. Out of necessity, the research on these alternatives is catching up with embryonic stem cell research and, with sufficient funding, other solutions might be found that are acceptable to everyone. On March 9, 2009, President Obama overturned Bushs ruling, allowing US Federal funding to go to embryonic stem cell research. However, the stipulation applies that normal NIH policies on data sharing must be followed. Despite the progress being made in other areas of stem cell research, using pluripotent cells from other sources, many American scientists were putting pressure on the government to allow their participation and compete with the Europeans. However, many people are still strongly opposed Research Ethics and Stem Cells Stem cells show potential for many different areas of health and medical research, and studying them can help us understand how they transform into the dazzling array of specialized cells that make us what we are. Some of the most serious medical conditions, such as cancer and birth defects, are caused by problems that occur somewhere in this process. A better understanding of normal cell development will allow us to understand and perhaps correct the errors that cause these medical conditions. Research on one kind of stem cell—human embryonic stem cells—has generated much interest and public debate. Pluripotent stem cells (cells that can develop into many different cell types of the body) are isolated from human embryos that are a few days old. Pluripotent stem cell lines have also been developed from fetal tissue (older than 8 weeks of development). As science and technology continue to advance, so do ethical viewpoints surrounding these developments. It is important to educate and explore the issues, scientifically and ethically. The discovery, isolation, and culturing of human embryonic stem cells has been described as one of the most significant breakthroughs in biomedicine of the century.1 This description would be warranted by virtue of the biological uniqueness of these cells alone—their ability to self-renew infinitely while retaining a remarkable capacity to differentiate into any form of cell tissue. But as well as this, the culturing of embryonic stem cells holds tremendous potential for the development of new forms of regenerative medicine to treat debilitating or fatal conditions that would not otherwise be curable.2 It is somewhat of an irony that the discovery of cells with such a tremendous potential for improving and prolonging our own lives, should bring with it some of the most trenchant and intractable questions about the value of life itself. The harvesting of embryonic stem cells results in the destruction of the embryos from which they are harvested. It results, in other words, in the expiration of the very beginnings of a possible human life. Issues about the value of life emerge here in perhaps their most stark and poignant form in the question of whether life for those already existing should be improved at the seeming expense of a possible human life that has just come into being. Needless to say, what the most ethically justified response is to this sort of question is far from obvious. It is not immediately apparent, either, just what should count as the appropriate criteria for assessing possible responses to it. Indeed, it is even contentious as to what the right concepts and terminology are for framing the central questions. What is clear, though, is that it would be remiss to fail to engage with these questions in a manner that is commensurate with their depth, complexity and importance. With due regard to that, the following discussion provides a brief overview of some of the core ethical issues arising from the Research Involving Embryos Bill 2002 and to some extent the Prohibition of Human Cloning Bill 2002.3 The public debate has focused mostly on ethical problems associated with the destruction of embryos (in the case of the first Bill), and with the creation of cloned human embryos (in the case of the second Bill). The current paper will confine its primary focus to the first set of problems, since many of the salient ethical issues about cloning will arise, as it turns out, in connection with embryonic stem cell research.4 1 Key Ethical Issues in Embryonic Stem Cell Research The paper takes most of the major ethical concerns in the debate to be encompassed by the following core questions: †¢ What, in principle, is ethically at issue with destructive embryo research? †¢ What is important when it comes to judging the value of the potential consequences of destructive embryo research? †¢ In what does the value of the human embryo consist? †¢ Does the means by which an embryo expires—whether it is destroyed or merely succumbs—make a moral difference? †¢ Is there anything morally worse about using embryos created for research purposes compared to using existing excess or surplus ART (assisted reproductive treatment) embryos? The purpose of the following discussion is to clarify some relevant moral and conceptual distinctions connected with these core questions, and to clarify the basic structure of the major views and argument themes that have been developed by philosophers, bioethicists and theologians in response to these questions. Of course, in their more fully expanded form these distinctions and arguments will involve subtleties and complexities that are beyond the limited scope of this paper to address. Nonetheless, the discussion here will hopefully give an impression of where some of those further complexities and subtleties might lie. The Basic Ethical Problem The possibility of destructive embryo research, particularly embryonic stem cell research, presents us with a moral problem because it appears to bring into tension two fundamental moral principles that we esteem very highly: one principle enjoins the prevention or alleviation of suffering, and the other enjoins us to respect the value of human life. As noted, the harvesting and culturing of embryonic stem cells has considerable potential to bring about remarkable potential benefits in the way of alleviating debilitating medical conditions. So, it satisfies the first principle to a very great degree. On the other hand, there is a case to be made that the harvesting of human embryonic stem cells violates the second principle in that it results in the destruction of human life with value (i.e. human embryos). Accordingly, both principles apparently cannot simultaneously be respected in the case of embryonic stem cell research. The question then is which principle ought to be given precedence in this conflict situation. Should we give more weight to the first, and permit destructive embryonic stem cell research because of its remarkable potential benefits? Or should we give more weight to the second, and prohibit destructive embryonic research because it violates respect for the value of the 2 Key Ethical Issues in Embryonic Stem Cell Research embryo as the very beginnings of a possible human life? This, at bottom, is the ethical problem generated by destructive embryo research. Crude as it may sound, responding to this problem calls for a moral calculation—a decision about how the positive value of destructive embryo research is to be weighted, from a moral point of view, in comparison to the negative value (or disvalue) of destroying embryos. Whatever way that calculation is done, it is important to get a clear idea of what moral weight each side of the equation has. This will involve: (i) developing a sound and accurate picture of what the real value is of the benefits of embryonic research, and (ii) clarifying what the value of embryos might consist in, and what, if anything, may be wrong with destroying them. The rest of this paper outlines some of the ethical arguments and philosophical considerations that have been considered relevant to these two matters. Evaluating the Benefits of Embryonic Stem Cell Research Evaluating the beneficial consequences of embryonic stem cell research is not straightforward. There are complexities associated with assessing how realistic the potential of the benefits is, how alternatives with different combinations of benefits and drawbacks are to be compared, and factoring in all of the sometimes overlooked possible consequences of embryonic research. Judging the Benefits Most attention has centred on the medical potential of embryonic stem cell research and cultivation, particularly somatic gene therapy for genetic disorders5, and the generation of replacement tissues and organs for transplant.6 There is no doubt that these outcomes, once realised, would be highly valuable. It is important to keep in mind, however, that currently these benefits are potential ones. A sound evaluation of stem cell research needs to take account of the likelihood of achieving its beneficial outcomes. In matters of science, and particularly, in areas that are newly developing and comparatively uncharted (such as embryonic stem cell research), it is sometimes difficult to settle on those probabilities with complete confidence. It is the nature of scientific discoveries and progress, that they are not easily predicted. Both advances and impediments to advancement can arise unexpectedly. This uncertainty about how real the potential benefits are, needs to be kept in mind wh en weighing and evaluating the consequences of embryonic stem cell research. 3 Key Ethical Issues in Embryonic Stem Cell Research Comparing the Benefits and Harms of Alternatives to Embryonic Stem Cell Research Adult Stem Cell Research Whether destructive embryonic stem cell research is the right thing to do or not, will partly depend on what the alternatives are, and how their particular benefits and drawbacks balance out. There is another research program involving adult stem cells that are present in and drawn from bone marrow, brain and gut, and other tissues. Some of these stem cells have a capacity to differentiate into a limited number of different cell types, such as blood cells, muscles and neurones (i.e., they are multipotent), but they have not been shown to be pluripotent (able to differentiate into any cell-type) in the way that embryonic stem cells are.7 This limitation means that adult stem cells offer more limited potential benefits in regenerative medicine and gene therapy, at least from the standpoint of our current understanding and available biotechnology. (But with that said, it is worth keeping in mind the points made above about the limited predictability of scientific advances, including the possibility of inducing adult stem cells to differentiate into a greater range of tissue types.) The harvesting and use of adult stem cells for biomedical purposes, however, avoids some of the ethically and biomedically problematic features of using embryonic stem cells. For a start, harvesting adult stem cells does not involve the destruction of embryos. The extent to which that is an advantage will depend on the extent to which that destruction turns out to be a bad thing, (and this will be taken up shortly). Tissues grown from adult stem cells will be immunologically compatible with the person from whom the stem cells are harvested. This means that those tissues can be transplanted into that person without fear of the body rejecting them. Tissues produced from embryonic stem cells for the purpose of regenerative therapy, however, are unlikely to be immunocompatible with the person for whom they are intended. The immunological properties of the tissue are set by the characteristics of whatever embryo the stem cells are derived from. Apart from the ongoing use of immunosuppressant drugs (with its possible serious side effects), two other potential solutions to this immunological limitation have been suggested. The first proposes a tissue bank with a sufficiently large number of different embryonic stem cell types to generate tissue that can be immunologically matched with different recipients. Hall points out, however, that this would require a huge number of human embryonic stem cell lines (the number being a matter of debate). Such an embryonic stem cell bank would be technically difficult and expensive to generate. The number of embryos that would be required to produce the cell bank would probably test public support †¦ 8. The second possible way of overcoming the problem of immunological incompatibility is through what has been called therapeutic cloning. In this process, the nucleus of a human oocyte or egg is removed and replaced with the nucleus of a cell taken from the body of the intended tissue re cipient. The new egg is induced to develop into an embryo, from which immunocompatible stem cells are harvested. The embryo will be a human embryonic clone of the recipient, with all his/her 4 Key Ethical Issues in Embryonic Stem Cell Research exact genetic characteristics. To date, there have only been one or two reported attempts at human cloning that have met with some success. A number of ethical objections have been expressed to therapeutic cloning, all revolving around the creating of an embryo, and moreover, the creating of an embryo for a use that will destroy it. These objections and arguments usually rely centrally on certain views about the value or moral status of the embryo, and these views will be outlined later in the paper. Whatever benefit the pluripotency of embryonic stem cells has in generating immunocompatible tissue, this benefit is likely to be possible only at the cost of having to engage in either the morally contentious practice of human (therapeutic) cloning, or the morally contentious practice of using (and destroying) a large number of embryos to create a sufficient range of embryonic stem cell lines for organ banks. It is especially important to note also, that if the Prohibition of Human Cloning Bill 2002 is passed in its current form, and any kind of human cloning, including therapeutic cloning, is prohibited, there will be less opportunity to maximise the potential benefits of embryonic stem cell research, and embryonic stem cells will effectively have less of the advantage they would otherwise have over adult stem cells. The Inevitable Succumbing of Surplus IVF Embryos The Research Involving Embryos Bill 2002 only permits excess ART embryos existing before 5 April 2002 to be used for research purposes in accordance with a licensing regime. It is a fact about those embryos that they would likely expire or succumb anyway. They would still be destroyed, in other words, but through exposure to natural processes. On the face of it, this looks as if the harm or negative value involved in embryos expiring (whatever it might be) will be the same whether embryo research is allowed or not. In each case the embryo will expire. But this impression can be a little oversimplified. Some philosophers argue that there is a moral difference between acts and omissions, between actively killing something, and passively failing to intervene to stop its death from other causes (when one could have). Even though the outcome is the same in each case, it can be argued that there is something worse, or more morally culpable, about actively bringing about the death oneself. There are different views on what the moral difference between killing and letting die amounts to, and there are those who argue that there is no significant difference. Whichever way one comes out on this, it is not clear that the act-omission distinction maps neatly onto the particular embryo research scenario under discussion. Destroying surplus embryos through research is certainly an act. But so too, some would argue, is removing surplus embryos from the cold storage that keeps them from expiring. They would hold that this looks less like failing to intervene in independently occurring causal processes (that will lead to expiry), than an act that sets those processes in motion. If this is true, then the first impression above will stand. The harm or negative value involved in embryos expiring (whatever it might be) will be the same whether embryo research is allowed or not. 5 Key Ethical Issues in Embryonic Stem Cell Research Some would argue that there is an important logical upshot from this. If the only two alternatives in the circumstances (destroying embryos in research vs making them succumb) involve the same level of harm or disvalue or moral wrongness, but embryo research involves much greater benefits than the other alternative, then it could be argued, it makes sense to opt for the more beneficial embryo research. And indeed, some might construe that as a sufficient case for the moral preferability of that option. (This would change, of course, if the relevant alternatives change—if say, embryos were purpose created for research, which were not pre-existing and destined to be expired).9 Taking into Account all of the Relevant Benefits and Harms The embryonic stem cell debate has been pre-occupied with the biological and medical benefits or drawbacks of that research. Central as these certainly are, there are nonetheless other, often-overlooked non-medical impacts that may be important to factor in. Some of the major among these are possible social impacts including: De-sensitisation to the Destruction of Human Life It is argued by some10 that allowing the destruction of embryos to become an entrenched practice would serve to desensitise the scientific establishment, regulating bodies, and society in general, to the destruction of life in general. An increased social toleration of loss of life, it would be argued, may make it easier for society to accede to (currently) more controversial practices involving the ending of life such as, late term elective abortion, or withdrawal of treatment for severely disabled infants, for example. This slippery slope argument about potential consequences is based on empirical assumptions about the causes and effects of certain social attitudes, and needs to be assessed in the light of their plausibility. Contributions to Social Oppression One strong but minority strand of argument emphasises the impact that biotechnology has on broader social relationships. It has been argued that research should be evaluated not only in terms of its effects on the subjects of the experiment but also in terms of its connection with existing patterns of oppression and domination in society.11 There is a considerable body of writing that explores the impacts of new reproductive technologies (such as IVF) on the interests of women, particularly how those technologies might contribute to oppression.12 In the case of embryonic research, it is sometimes argued that women who donate ova or embryos are at risk of exploitation to the extent that male-dominated medical practice appropriates their reproductive labour for research and commercial benefits. Women are at risk, therefore, of being alienated from their reproductive labour. Moreover, it is argued that womens body parts are at risk of being commodified, and their acts of altruistic dona tion demeaned, if downstream users can develop commercial applications for stem cells developed from their ova and embryos.13 6 Key Ethical Issues in Embryonic Stem Cell Research The Value of the Embryo What weight does the other side of the moral equation have? What is wrong, if anything, with destroying embryos? If there is something wrong with that, is it sufficiently wrong to outweigh or override the benefits of embryo research, and therefore, render that research morally impermissible? Most of the leading arguments about the rightness or wrongness of destroying embryos are based on some view or other about the moral status of the embryo—how the embryo ought to be regarded or treated from the moral point of view, in virtue of it arguably possessing certain morally important intrinsic characteristics. It is relatively uncontroversial to describe embryos as human life (at its very beginnings). It is another thing, however, to describe embryos as persons, or human beings, or potential persons, etc. These descriptions are morally laden in that they carry with them potential implications about what can and cannot be done to embryos from a moral point of view. What those potential implications are, and indeed, whether they are sound ones, will depend on the nature and plausibility of the particular arguments that accompany each view on the moral status of the embryo. There are different views about this moral status. The leading views speculate that embryos have the status of: †¢ persons, or †¢ potential persons, or †¢ divine creations, or †¢ subjects of moral harm, or †¢ the beginnings of human life, with intrinsic value, or †¢ organic material with no more moral standing than other body parts. Each of these will be outlined in turn, with particular attention to (i) what the intrinsic moral characteristics are the each particular view attributes to embryos, and (ii) what these alleged characteristics or moral status are held to imply for our moral treatment of embryos—particularly whether they can ever or never be destroyed. Embryos have Status as Human Beings or Persons Some argue that, despite obvious physical differences between developed humans and embryos, the latter ought still be regarded as human beings or persons. One of the more plausible arguments to this effect relies on pointing out that there is no non-arbitrary point in the physical growth continuum between embryo and developed human that counts as a morally significant dividing line.14 Consequently, if individuals at their fully developed stage are human beings or persons, there is no non-arbitrary ground to think that they should not count as the same at their embryonic stage. Those who hold otherwise, 7 Key Ethical Issues in Embryonic Stem Cell Research according to this argument, need to indicate the developmental point at which personhood, or status as a human being, is acquired. The argument continues that it is a very deeply and commonly held view in modern liberal democracies that individual persons are deserving of especially strong moral respect in certain ways. All individuals, by virtue of being persons, have fundamental rights not to have their basic human interests interfered with in certain ways, and most importantly, their interest in the maintenance of their life and bodily integrity. If embryos have the status of persons, then they too will have rights not to be harmed or killed. Or, put in another way, we will be under a very strong moral obligation not to harm or kill embryos. Most prominent ethicists, philosophers and commentators would agree that persons have a status deserving of strong and special moral respect, protection and dignity. Many, however, would dispute that embryos should be considered persons or human beings in any serious sense. Even if one cannot point to an exact black and white dividing line in human development, it is still reasonable (they hold) to point to the fact that wherever the transition occurs, embryos do not have the psychological, physiological, emotional, intellectual properties that we tend to centrally associate with personhood. Embryos, particularly the very early pre-implantation blastocysts involved in stem cell research,15 do not, for instance, have consciousness, individuality, the ability to reason, or the ability to form courses of action in life and to choose between them.16 Embryos have Status as Potential Persons Some ethicists have a response to the foregoing objection to viewing embryos as persons. It is to concede that embryos do not currently exhibit these properties of personhood, but they will, if allowed to develop and fulfil their potential. To the extent that embryos are potential persons, it is argued, they ought to still be accorded the moral respect and dignity that personhood warrants. This potential person argument Ethical Questions in the Stem Cell Debate Ethical Questions in the Stem Cell Debate The Stem Cell Debate: Ethical Questions The story for the year 1997 was the sacred. We fear a Promethean blunder. We fear that our own human hubris will violate something sacred in our nature; and we fear that nature will retaliate with disaster. To protect ourselves from a possible Promethean blunder by science, we are tempted to stop further research with the commandment: thou shalt not play God! Then, during 1999, we opened the first few pages on chapter two of the cloning controversy story. I will refer to this chapter as the stem cell debate. The debate has only begun. What is not yet clear is just what needs to be debated. Perhaps nothing. Perhaps everything. What is clear is that the fallout from the cloning explosion is still lighting fires here and there. Whether or not the public will add stem cells to the fuel to make those fires burn hotter remains to be seen. Stem cells have become front page news in Australia, as well as in the United States and other countries. On February 4, 1999, the Australian National Academy of Science issued a position statement. Note the structure of Recommendation 1. Council considers that reproductive cloning to produce human fetuses is unethical and unsafe and should be prohibited.However, human cells derived from cloning techniques, from germ cells should not be precluded from use in approved research activities in cellular and developmental biology Here two things are put together. First, disapproval of reproductive cloning for the purposes of making children. Second, approval of research on human embryonic stem cells, approval even in the face of ethical squeamishness regarding embryo research. If this Australian statement is a barometer, we need to ask: what is the cultural weather forecast? What might be coming? In what follows it will be my task to report on the fast-moving frontier of stem cell research within the field of anthropology, agenda questions raised by science that need to be addressed by systematic theologians and public policy makers. I will ask more questions than I am ready to answer. Yet, I believe that such work invested in trying to formulate the relevant question (die Fragestellung) takes us more than just halfway toward a helpful answer. The Human Embryonic Stem Cell Debate Science, Ethics, and Public Policy Edited by Laurie Zoloth Human embryonic stem cells can divide indefinitely and have the potential to develop into many types of tissue. Research on these cells is essential to one of the most intriguing medical frontiers, regenerative medicine. It also raises a host of difficult ethical issues and has sparked great public interest and controversy. This book offers a foundation for thinking about the many issues involved in human embryonic stem cell research. It considers questions about the nature of human life, the limits of intervention into human cells and tissues, and the meaning of our corporeal existence. The fact that stem cells may be derived from living embryos that are destroyed in the process or from aborted fetuses ties the discussion of stem cell research to the ongoing debates on abortion. In addition to these issues, the essays in the book touch on broader questions such as who should approve controversial research and what constitutes human dignity, respect, and justice. The book contains contributions from the Ethics Advisory Board of the Geron Coroporation; excerpts from expert testimony given before the National Bioethics Advisory Commission, which helped shape recent National Institutes of Health policy; and original analytical essays on the implications of this research. Pros and Cons Debates over the ethics of embryonic blastocysts. Latest Developments The most recent research has shown that there are many options available other than working with embryonic stem cells. Stem cells can be obtained from cord blood or derived by manipulating differentiated cells (i.e. skin cells) to revert them to a pluripotent state. These are alternatives that may help broaden the acceptance of stem cell research. Background In November 1998 the first published research paper reported that stem cells could be taken from human embryos. Subsequent research led to the ability to maintain undifferentiated stem cell lines (pluripotent cells) and techniques for differentiating them into cells specific to various tissues and organs. The debates over the ethics of stem cell research began almost immediately in 1999, despite reports that stem cells cannot grow into complete organisms. In 2000 – 2001, governments worldwide were beginning to draft proposals and guidelines in an effort to control stem cell research and the handling of embryonic tissues, and reach universal policies to prevent â€Å"brain-drains† (emigration of top scientists) between countries. The CIHR (Canadian Institute of Health Sciences) drafted a list of recommendations for stem cell research in 2001. The Clinton administration drafted guidelines for stem cell research in 2000, but Clinton left office prior to them being released. The Bush government has had to deal with the issue throughout his administration. Australia, Germany, UK and other countries have also formulated policies. (Continued from Page 1) Pros The therapeutic cloning. Stem cells provide huge potential for finding treatments and cures to a vast array of diseases including different cancers, diabetes, spinal cord injuries, Alzheimers, MS, Huntingtons, Parkinsons and more. There is endless potential for scientists to learn about human growth and cell development from studying stem cells. Use of adult-derived stem cells, from blood, cord blood, skin and other tissues, known as IPSCs, has been demonstrated to be effective for treating different diseases in animal models. Umbilical-cord-derived stem cells (obtained from the cord blood) have also been isolated and utilized for various experimental treatments. Another option is use of uniparental stem cells. Although these cells lines have some disadvantages or shortcomings compared to embryonic cell lines (they are shorter-lived), there is vast potential if enough money is invested in researching them further, and they are not technically considered individual living beings by pro-life advocates. Cons Use of embryonic stem cells for reasearch involves the destruction of blastocysts formed from laboratory-fertilized human eggs. For those who believe that life begins at conception, the blastocyst is a human life and to destroy it is unacceptable and immoral. This seems to be the only controversial issue standing in the way of stem cell research in North America. Where It Stands In the summer of 2006 President Bush stood his ground on the issue of stem cell research and vetoed a bill passed by the Senate that would have expanded federal funding of embryonic stem cell research. Currently, American federal funding can only go to research on stem cells from existing (already destroyed) embryos. Similarly, in Canada, as of 2002, scientists cannot create or clone embryos for research but must used existing embryos discarded by couples. The UK allows embryonic stem cell cloning. Use of stem cell lines from alternative non-embryonic sources has received more attention in recent years and has already been demonstrated as a successful option for treatment of certain diseases. For example, adult stem cells can be used to replace blood-cell-forming cells killed during chemotherapy in bone marrow transplant patients. Biotech companies such as ACT are researching techniques for cellular reprogramming of adult cells, use of amnionic fluid, or stem cell extraction techniques that do not damage the embryo, that also provide alternatives for obtaining viable stem cell lines. Out of necessity, the research on these alternatives is catching up with embryonic stem cell research and, with sufficient funding, other solutions might be found that are acceptable to everyone. On March 9, 2009, President Obama overturned Bushs ruling, allowing US Federal funding to go to embryonic stem cell research. However, the stipulation applies that normal NIH policies on data sharing must be followed. Despite the progress being made in other areas of stem cell research, using pluripotent cells from other sources, many American scientists were putting pressure on the government to allow their participation and compete with the Europeans. However, many people are still strongly opposed Research Ethics and Stem Cells Stem cells show potential for many different areas of health and medical research, and studying them can help us understand how they transform into the dazzling array of specialized cells that make us what we are. Some of the most serious medical conditions, such as cancer and birth defects, are caused by problems that occur somewhere in this process. A better understanding of normal cell development will allow us to understand and perhaps correct the errors that cause these medical conditions. Research on one kind of stem cell—human embryonic stem cells—has generated much interest and public debate. Pluripotent stem cells (cells that can develop into many different cell types of the body) are isolated from human embryos that are a few days old. Pluripotent stem cell lines have also been developed from fetal tissue (older than 8 weeks of development). As science and technology continue to advance, so do ethical viewpoints surrounding these developments. It is important to educate and explore the issues, scientifically and ethically. The discovery, isolation, and culturing of human embryonic stem cells has been described as one of the most significant breakthroughs in biomedicine of the century.1 This description would be warranted by virtue of the biological uniqueness of these cells alone—their ability to self-renew infinitely while retaining a remarkable capacity to differentiate into any form of cell tissue. But as well as this, the culturing of embryonic stem cells holds tremendous potential for the development of new forms of regenerative medicine to treat debilitating or fatal conditions that would not otherwise be curable.2 It is somewhat of an irony that the discovery of cells with such a tremendous potential for improving and prolonging our own lives, should bring with it some of the most trenchant and intractable questions about the value of life itself. The harvesting of embryonic stem cells results in the destruction of the embryos from which they are harvested. It results, in other words, in the expiration of the very beginnings of a possible human life. Issues about the value of life emerge here in perhaps their most stark and poignant form in the question of whether life for those already existing should be improved at the seeming expense of a possible human life that has just come into being. Needless to say, what the most ethically justified response is to this sort of question is far from obvious. It is not immediately apparent, either, just what should count as the appropriate criteria for assessing possible responses to it. Indeed, it is even contentious as to what the right concepts and terminology are for framing the central questions. What is clear, though, is that it would be remiss to fail to engage with these questions in a manner that is commensurate with their depth, complexity and importance. With due regard to that, the following discussion provides a brief overview of some of the core ethical issues arising from the Research Involving Embryos Bill 2002 and to some extent the Prohibition of Human Cloning Bill 2002.3 The public debate has focused mostly on ethical problems associated with the destruction of embryos (in the case of the first Bill), and with the creation of cloned human embryos (in the case of the second Bill). The current paper will confine its primary focus to the first set of problems, since many of the salient ethical issues about cloning will arise, as it turns out, in connection with embryonic stem cell research.4 1 Key Ethical Issues in Embryonic Stem Cell Research The paper takes most of the major ethical concerns in the debate to be encompassed by the following core questions: †¢ What, in principle, is ethically at issue with destructive embryo research? †¢ What is important when it comes to judging the value of the potential consequences of destructive embryo research? †¢ In what does the value of the human embryo consist? †¢ Does the means by which an embryo expires—whether it is destroyed or merely succumbs—make a moral difference? †¢ Is there anything morally worse about using embryos created for research purposes compared to using existing excess or surplus ART (assisted reproductive treatment) embryos? The purpose of the following discussion is to clarify some relevant moral and conceptual distinctions connected with these core questions, and to clarify the basic structure of the major views and argument themes that have been developed by philosophers, bioethicists and theologians in response to these questions. Of course, in their more fully expanded form these distinctions and arguments will involve subtleties and complexities that are beyond the limited scope of this paper to address. Nonetheless, the discussion here will hopefully give an impression of where some of those further complexities and subtleties might lie. The Basic Ethical Problem The possibility of destructive embryo research, particularly embryonic stem cell research, presents us with a moral problem because it appears to bring into tension two fundamental moral principles that we esteem very highly: one principle enjoins the prevention or alleviation of suffering, and the other enjoins us to respect the value of human life. As noted, the harvesting and culturing of embryonic stem cells has considerable potential to bring about remarkable potential benefits in the way of alleviating debilitating medical conditions. So, it satisfies the first principle to a very great degree. On the other hand, there is a case to be made that the harvesting of human embryonic stem cells violates the second principle in that it results in the destruction of human life with value (i.e. human embryos). Accordingly, both principles apparently cannot simultaneously be respected in the case of embryonic stem cell research. The question then is which principle ought to be given precedence in this conflict situation. Should we give more weight to the first, and permit destructive embryonic stem cell research because of its remarkable potential benefits? Or should we give more weight to the second, and prohibit destructive embryonic research because it violates respect for the value of the 2 Key Ethical Issues in Embryonic Stem Cell Research embryo as the very beginnings of a possible human life? This, at bottom, is the ethical problem generated by destructive embryo research. Crude as it may sound, responding to this problem calls for a moral calculation—a decision about how the positive value of destructive embryo research is to be weighted, from a moral point of view, in comparison to the negative value (or disvalue) of destroying embryos. Whatever way that calculation is done, it is important to get a clear idea of what moral weight each side of the equation has. This will involve: (i) developing a sound and accurate picture of what the real value is of the benefits of embryonic research, and (ii) clarifying what the value of embryos might consist in, and what, if anything, may be wrong with destroying them. The rest of this paper outlines some of the ethical arguments and philosophical considerations that have been considered relevant to these two matters. Evaluating the Benefits of Embryonic Stem Cell Research Evaluating the beneficial consequences of embryonic stem cell research is not straightforward. There are complexities associated with assessing how realistic the potential of the benefits is, how alternatives with different combinations of benefits and drawbacks are to be compared, and factoring in all of the sometimes overlooked possible consequences of embryonic research. Judging the Benefits Most attention has centred on the medical potential of embryonic stem cell research and cultivation, particularly somatic gene therapy for genetic disorders5, and the generation of replacement tissues and organs for transplant.6 There is no doubt that these outcomes, once realised, would be highly valuable. It is important to keep in mind, however, that currently these benefits are potential ones. A sound evaluation of stem cell research needs to take account of the likelihood of achieving its beneficial outcomes. In matters of science, and particularly, in areas that are newly developing and comparatively uncharted (such as embryonic stem cell research), it is sometimes difficult to settle on those probabilities with complete confidence. It is the nature of scientific discoveries and progress, that they are not easily predicted. Both advances and impediments to advancement can arise unexpectedly. This uncertainty about how real the potential benefits are, needs to be kept in mind wh en weighing and evaluating the consequences of embryonic stem cell research. 3 Key Ethical Issues in Embryonic Stem Cell Research Comparing the Benefits and Harms of Alternatives to Embryonic Stem Cell Research Adult Stem Cell Research Whether destructive embryonic stem cell research is the right thing to do or not, will partly depend on what the alternatives are, and how their particular benefits and drawbacks balance out. There is another research program involving adult stem cells that are present in and drawn from bone marrow, brain and gut, and other tissues. Some of these stem cells have a capacity to differentiate into a limited number of different cell types, such as blood cells, muscles and neurones (i.e., they are multipotent), but they have not been shown to be pluripotent (able to differentiate into any cell-type) in the way that embryonic stem cells are.7 This limitation means that adult stem cells offer more limited potential benefits in regenerative medicine and gene therapy, at least from the standpoint of our current understanding and available biotechnology. (But with that said, it is worth keeping in mind the points made above about the limited predictability of scientific advances, including the possibility of inducing adult stem cells to differentiate into a greater range of tissue types.) The harvesting and use of adult stem cells for biomedical purposes, however, avoids some of the ethically and biomedically problematic features of using embryonic stem cells. For a start, harvesting adult stem cells does not involve the destruction of embryos. The extent to which that is an advantage will depend on the extent to which that destruction turns out to be a bad thing, (and this will be taken up shortly). Tissues grown from adult stem cells will be immunologically compatible with the person from whom the stem cells are harvested. This means that those tissues can be transplanted into that person without fear of the body rejecting them. Tissues produced from embryonic stem cells for the purpose of regenerative therapy, however, are unlikely to be immunocompatible with the person for whom they are intended. The immunological properties of the tissue are set by the characteristics of whatever embryo the stem cells are derived from. Apart from the ongoing use of immunosuppressant drugs (with its possible serious side effects), two other potential solutions to this immunological limitation have been suggested. The first proposes a tissue bank with a sufficiently large number of different embryonic stem cell types to generate tissue that can be immunologically matched with different recipients. Hall points out, however, that this would require a huge number of human embryonic stem cell lines (the number being a matter of debate). Such an embryonic stem cell bank would be technically difficult and expensive to generate. The number of embryos that would be required to produce the cell bank would probably test public support †¦ 8. The second possible way of overcoming the problem of immunological incompatibility is through what has been called therapeutic cloning. In this process, the nucleus of a human oocyte or egg is removed and replaced with the nucleus of a cell taken from the body of the intended tissue re cipient. The new egg is induced to develop into an embryo, from which immunocompatible stem cells are harvested. The embryo will be a human embryonic clone of the recipient, with all his/her 4 Key Ethical Issues in Embryonic Stem Cell Research exact genetic characteristics. To date, there have only been one or two reported attempts at human cloning that have met with some success. A number of ethical objections have been expressed to therapeutic cloning, all revolving around the creating of an embryo, and moreover, the creating of an embryo for a use that will destroy it. These objections and arguments usually rely centrally on certain views about the value or moral status of the embryo, and these views will be outlined later in the paper. Whatever benefit the pluripotency of embryonic stem cells has in generating immunocompatible tissue, this benefit is likely to be possible only at the cost of having to engage in either the morally contentious practice of human (therapeutic) cloning, or the morally contentious practice of using (and destroying) a large number of embryos to create a sufficient range of embryonic stem cell lines for organ banks. It is especially important to note also, that if the Prohibition of Human Cloning Bill 2002 is passed in its current form, and any kind of human cloning, including therapeutic cloning, is prohibited, there will be less opportunity to maximise the potential benefits of embryonic stem cell research, and embryonic stem cells will effectively have less of the advantage they would otherwise have over adult stem cells. The Inevitable Succumbing of Surplus IVF Embryos The Research Involving Embryos Bill 2002 only permits excess ART embryos existing before 5 April 2002 to be used for research purposes in accordance with a licensing regime. It is a fact about those embryos that they would likely expire or succumb anyway. They would still be destroyed, in other words, but through exposure to natural processes. On the face of it, this looks as if the harm or negative value involved in embryos expiring (whatever it might be) will be the same whether embryo research is allowed or not. In each case the embryo will expire. But this impression can be a little oversimplified. Some philosophers argue that there is a moral difference between acts and omissions, between actively killing something, and passively failing to intervene to stop its death from other causes (when one could have). Even though the outcome is the same in each case, it can be argued that there is something worse, or more morally culpable, about actively bringing about the death oneself. There are different views on what the moral difference between killing and letting die amounts to, and there are those who argue that there is no significant difference. Whichever way one comes out on this, it is not clear that the act-omission distinction maps neatly onto the particular embryo research scenario under discussion. Destroying surplus embryos through research is certainly an act. But so too, some would argue, is removing surplus embryos from the cold storage that keeps them from expiring. They would hold that this looks less like failing to intervene in independently occurring causal processes (that will lead to expiry), than an act that sets those processes in motion. If this is true, then the first impression above will stand. The harm or negative value involved in embryos expiring (whatever it might be) will be the same whether embryo research is allowed or not. 5 Key Ethical Issues in Embryonic Stem Cell Research Some would argue that there is an important logical upshot from this. If the only two alternatives in the circumstances (destroying embryos in research vs making them succumb) involve the same level of harm or disvalue or moral wrongness, but embryo research involves much greater benefits than the other alternative, then it could be argued, it makes sense to opt for the more beneficial embryo research. And indeed, some might construe that as a sufficient case for the moral preferability of that option. (This would change, of course, if the relevant alternatives change—if say, embryos were purpose created for research, which were not pre-existing and destined to be expired).9 Taking into Account all of the Relevant Benefits and Harms The embryonic stem cell debate has been pre-occupied with the biological and medical benefits or drawbacks of that research. Central as these certainly are, there are nonetheless other, often-overlooked non-medical impacts that may be important to factor in. Some of the major among these are possible social impacts including: De-sensitisation to the Destruction of Human Life It is argued by some10 that allowing the destruction of embryos to become an entrenched practice would serve to desensitise the scientific establishment, regulating bodies, and society in general, to the destruction of life in general. An increased social toleration of loss of life, it would be argued, may make it easier for society to accede to (currently) more controversial practices involving the ending of life such as, late term elective abortion, or withdrawal of treatment for severely disabled infants, for example. This slippery slope argument about potential consequences is based on empirical assumptions about the causes and effects of certain social attitudes, and needs to be assessed in the light of their plausibility. Contributions to Social Oppression One strong but minority strand of argument emphasises the impact that biotechnology has on broader social relationships. It has been argued that research should be evaluated not only in terms of its effects on the subjects of the experiment but also in terms of its connection with existing patterns of oppression and domination in society.11 There is a considerable body of writing that explores the impacts of new reproductive technologies (such as IVF) on the interests of women, particularly how those technologies might contribute to oppression.12 In the case of embryonic research, it is sometimes argued that women who donate ova or embryos are at risk of exploitation to the extent that male-dominated medical practice appropriates their reproductive labour for research and commercial benefits. Women are at risk, therefore, of being alienated from their reproductive labour. Moreover, it is argued that womens body parts are at risk of being commodified, and their acts of altruistic dona tion demeaned, if downstream users can develop commercial applications for stem cells developed from their ova and embryos.13 6 Key Ethical Issues in Embryonic Stem Cell Research The Value of the Embryo What weight does the other side of the moral equation have? What is wrong, if anything, with destroying embryos? If there is something wrong with that, is it sufficiently wrong to outweigh or override the benefits of embryo research, and therefore, render that research morally impermissible? Most of the leading arguments about the rightness or wrongness of destroying embryos are based on some view or other about the moral status of the embryo—how the embryo ought to be regarded or treated from the moral point of view, in virtue of it arguably possessing certain morally important intrinsic characteristics. It is relatively uncontroversial to describe embryos as human life (at its very beginnings). It is another thing, however, to describe embryos as persons, or human beings, or potential persons, etc. These descriptions are morally laden in that they carry with them potential implications about what can and cannot be done to embryos from a moral point of view. What those potential implications are, and indeed, whether they are sound ones, will depend on the nature and plausibility of the particular arguments that accompany each view on the moral status of the embryo. There are different views about this moral status. The leading views speculate that embryos have the status of: †¢ persons, or †¢ potential persons, or †¢ divine creations, or †¢ subjects of moral harm, or †¢ the beginnings of human life, with intrinsic value, or †¢ organic material with no more moral standing than other body parts. Each of these will be outlined in turn, with particular attention to (i) what the intrinsic moral characteristics are the each particular view attributes to embryos, and (ii) what these alleged characteristics or moral status are held to imply for our moral treatment of embryos—particularly whether they can ever or never be destroyed. Embryos have Status as Human Beings or Persons Some argue that, despite obvious physical differences between developed humans and embryos, the latter ought still be regarded as human beings or persons. One of the more plausible arguments to this effect relies on pointing out that there is no non-arbitrary point in the physical growth continuum between embryo and developed human that counts as a morally significant dividing line.14 Consequently, if individuals at their fully developed stage are human beings or persons, there is no non-arbitrary ground to think that they should not count as the same at their embryonic stage. Those who hold otherwise, 7 Key Ethical Issues in Embryonic Stem Cell Research according to this argument, need to indicate the developmental point at which personhood, or status as a human being, is acquired. The argument continues that it is a very deeply and commonly held view in modern liberal democracies that individual persons are deserving of especially strong moral respect in certain ways. All individuals, by virtue of being persons, have fundamental rights not to have their basic human interests interfered with in certain ways, and most importantly, their interest in the maintenance of their life and bodily integrity. If embryos have the status of persons, then they too will have rights not to be harmed or killed. Or, put in another way, we will be under a very strong moral obligation not to harm or kill embryos. Most prominent ethicists, philosophers and commentators would agree that persons have a status deserving of strong and special moral respect, protection and dignity. Many, however, would dispute that embryos should be considered persons or human beings in any serious sense. Even if one cannot point to an exact black and white dividing line in human development, it is still reasonable (they hold) to point to the fact that wherever the transition occurs, embryos do not have the psychological, physiological, emotional, intellectual properties that we tend to centrally associate with personhood. Embryos, particularly the very early pre-implantation blastocysts involved in stem cell research,15 do not, for instance, have consciousness, individuality, the ability to reason, or the ability to form courses of action in life and to choose between them.16 Embryos have Status as Potential Persons Some ethicists have a response to the foregoing objection to viewing embryos as persons. It is to concede that embryos do not currently exhibit these properties of personhood, but they will, if allowed to develop and fulfil their potential. To the extent that embryos are potential persons, it is argued, they ought to still be accorded the moral respect and dignity that personhood warrants. This potential person argument